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Investment and new milestones in quantum computing are bringing the prospect of an ultra-powerful computer that can crack any code closer to reality. Alphabet Incs Google and International Business Machines Corp. are racing to increase the number of qubits the quantum equivalent of bits that encode data on classical computers on a quantum chip. Firms like Canadas D-Wave Systems Inc. and French startup Alice&Bob are offering quantum computing services to clients that want broad processing power to solve complex problems.

But any technological advance comes with concerns. While a fully-fledged quantum computer doesnt appear to exist yet, there is already worry about its ability to crack encryption underpinning critical communications between companies and between armed forces.

Andersen Cheng, founder and chief executive officer of London quantum-encryption firm Post Quantum, joined me on Twitter Spaces on Wednesday to talk about why NATO, banks and other entities need to prepare for a world where quantum attacks are possible. Here is an edited transcript of our conversation.

Parmy Olson: How significant is the prospect of quantum computers usurping the machines we use today?

Andersen Cheng: Its going to impact every single one of us. I trained as a computer auditor over 30 years ago so I have seen enough in cybersecurity, and the biggest existential threat we are facing now is a quantum attack. Remember a few months ago when Facebook, WhatsApp and Instagram went dark for a few hours? Imagine if they went dark and never came back up? Or what if we couldnt buy our stuff on Amazon? That is the thing we have to worry about in terms of what a quantum machine can do.

One thing that is now emerging is the possibility of a quantum machine that can also crack encryption. When a quantum machine comes in, itll be like an x-ray machine. A hacker no longer needs to steal my wallet. All they have to do is to go to the lock on your front door and take an X-ray image of it. They then know what the key looks like and can replicate it.

PO: Machines today cant crack the encryption underpinning networks like Facebook Messenger, WhatsApp and Signal. Can the quantum-computing services provided by IBM or D-Wave already do that?

AC: No. We cannot tell at this point if someone has already got the first functioning quantum machine somewhere. All the computers were using today are what we call classical computers. A quantum machine cannot do very complicated computation, but it can do millions of tries in one go. A quantum machine is useless in doing 99% of the work that we see today, but its extremely fast in doing many very simple tries simultaneously.

The opinion has been that this machine is 10 to 20 years away. But in the intelligence world, people are now worried it will be within five years. Theres been more urgency in the last two and a half years. This is why you see a lot more initiatives going on now in terms of claiming quantum supremacy. Nation states have put billions of dollars into building a quantum machine. There have been several lab-based breakthroughs in the past few years, which have got people worried.

PO: Lets say somebody gets hold of a quantum computer that can break encryption. What could they do?

AC: One option is a harvest-now-and-decrypt-later attack. Right now Im using my iPhone, using a public key that is encrypted. If someone is trying to intercept and store our information, they are just harvesting it. They cannot decrypt it today. But one day they could open up all the secrets [with a quantum computer].

PO: NATO has started experimenting with your virtual private network which has quantum encryption embedded into it. Why are they trialing this?

AC: The current algorithms we use inside a VPN (a tool used to securely tunnel into a corporate network or through a national firewall) either use a standard from RSA Laboratories or elliptic-curve cryptography. Neither are quantum safe.

PO: Meaning they could be cracked by a quantum computer?

AC: Correct. If you start collecting my data, one day with a quantum machine you could actually crack [the passwords protecting it]. That is the worry from a lot of organizations. NATO has got 30 members states so interoperability is important. If you send allied troops into Ukraine, they have to talk to each other. Since different armies use different communication protocols, you have to think about the harvest-now-decrypt-later risk. So this is why they are at forefront of looking for a quantum-safe solution.

PO: What else is at risk from a quantum attack?

AC: Bitcoin and the blockchain. I would say 99% of all cryptocurrencies are using elliptic-curve cryptography, which is not quantum safe. Whoevers got the first working machine will be able to recover hundreds of billions of dollars worth of cryptocurrency.

PO: Which countries are on the forefront of using quantum encryption?

AC: Canada (where quantum computing firm D-Wave Systems is based) is at the forefront of quantum innovation. Then Australia, the Netherlands, France, the U.K. and then you have the U.S. In 2017, Donald Trump made an executive order for a $1.2 billion quantum computing initiative. Thats actually nothing compared to other nation states. China has openly committed between $12 billion and $15 billion to quantum supremacy. France has committed 1.8 billion euros ($2 billion) to quantum.

PO: What about the commercial sector?

AC: The American commercial sector has been very innovative with quantum computing, including Google, IBM, Honeywell International Inc.

I cannot name names but some of the largest banks are all quietly building up what we call the PQC teams, or the post-quantum crypto teams, to prepare for the migration. Some of them do see it as an existential threat and they also see it as a marketing advantage to tell customers they are quantum-safe. I know one of the largest systems integrators in the world has committed $200 million to build out a quantum consulting division. They see this as like Y2K happening every month in the next 10 years.

PO: Y2K refers to when everybody thought the worlds computers would blow up when the date changed on Jan. 1, 2000.

AC: It was a once-in-a-lifetime event which did not happen. I was working for JP Morgan Chase & Co. at the time on the Y2K migration committee. Three days after Jan. 1, Sandy Warner, then-CEO, sent an email to every employee saying, Wow, we only spent $286 million on Y2K and nothing happened, so we are very pleased.

PO: How much of the worries over quantum are being overblown by consultants keen to earn fees to set up these new systems? Bearing in mind youre in this market too.

AC: The consultants are thinking Christmas has come early. Everyones been procrastinating until NIST (Maryland-based National Institute of Standards and Technology) updated its standards to include quantum cryptography. I believe the first wave of huge revenues will go to consulting firms, and then the next wave will come down to vendors like us.

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Why banks and NATO are worrying about a future Quantum attack - The Indian Express

Let me try distracting you from war and disease with a joke. Schrdinger takes his cat to the vet for a check-up. The vet comes back 10 minutes later and says, Well, I have good news and bad news.. If you snickered at this, you know a bit about the Schrdingers Cat paradox, and therefore perhaps a little bit about quantum physics. For those who did not, the paradox explains the seeming contradiction between what we see with our naked eye and what quantum theory tells us actually exists in its microscopic state. The Copenhagen interpretation of quantum mechanics states that a particle exists in all states at once until observed. Schrdingers cat is in a box, and could be alive or dead. But till the box is opened, you would not be able to know. Thus, the vets quandary.

This principle, among others, powers one of the most exciting and bleeding- edge advances in technology: Quantum computing. I have written about it before in Mint, but to summarize: Our current powerful computers follow the principles of the Turing machine, where information is encoded in bits (1 and 0) and a series of operations (and, or, not, etc) make these bits compute. A quantum computer uses qubits or the quantum version of bits; a qubit is not permanently a 0 or 1, but it can be both at the same time. Only at the end of the computation (when the box is opened), can you know whether its 0 or 1. During the computation process, its exact state is indeterminate and can contain bits of both. If this whooshed over your head, console yourself with what Bill Gates said in a 2017 interview: I know a lot of physics and a lot of math. But the one place where they put up slides and it is hieroglyphics, its quantum."

A quantum computer can exploit these properties of quantum physics to perform certain calculations far more efficiently and faster than any computer or supercomputer, inspiring the likes of Microsoft, IBM and Google to work feverishly on this form of computing. This is especially urgent because Moores Law is flattening but our problems are becoming more complex: climate change, artificial general intelligence, drug personalization. While this is super exciting, a recent BBC article (bbc.in/3pA7pIY ) about the quantum apocalypse made me pause.

As a hidden force behind e-commerce, online banking and trading, crypto trading, social networking and internet messaging, almost everything we do involves encryption. Most encryption uses public and private keys, and that in turn uses arcane mathematical calculations involving prime numbers. Using a Turing computer to crack this encryption is virtually impossible. It would take thousands of years. However, a quantum computer can potentially do this in mere seconds. Every minute, huge amounts of encrypted data is harvested without our knowledge and stored in vast data banks, waiting for the day that it can finally be decrypted. Today, there is nothing data thieves can do with this treasure trove, but once a functioning quantum computer appears that will be able to break that encryption... it can almost instantly create the ability for whoevers developed it to clear bank accounts, to completely shut down government defence systemsBitcoin wallets will be drained." says lyas Khan, chief executive of Quantinuum. Moreover, current encryption methods will be useless, halting online banking transactions, e-commerce, social media interactions, everything. The security of every public blockchain will be under threat from quantum computing power, since it relies on heavy duty cryptography; it was no coincidence that the price of Bitcoin dropped sharply the day Google made its announcement of achieving quantum supremacy a year ago. It was a portent of the quantum apocalypse.

The world is gearing up for this post-quantum world. Google, Microsoft, Intel and IBM are working on solutions. So are specialist startups like Post-Quantum and Quantinuum. The UK government claims that all its top-secret data is already post-quantum. The BBC talks of a beauty parade taking place to establish a standardised defence strategy that will protect industry, government, academia and critical national infrastructure against the perils of the quantum apocalypse." New cryptographic methods like quantum key distribution are being developed, by which even if the message gets intercepted, no one can read it, much like the cat.

All this will not be cheap, nor will it be easy. But we have no choicemost of our world runs digitally now and its wheels need to be kept humming. To do that, we need to think out of the box.

Jaspreet Bindra is the chief tech whisperer at Findability Sciences, and learning AI, Ethics and Society at Cambridge University.

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Schrdingers cat and the worry of a quantum apocalypse ahead - Mint

Manufacturing breakthrough will lead to quantum chips with the precision required to build the worlds first useful quantum computer

PALO ALTO, Calif., March 15, 2022--(BUSINESS WIRE)--PsiQuantum's partnership with GlobalFoundries (GF) has been included in Fast Companys prestigious annual list of the Worlds Most Innovative Companies. PsiQuantum is using GFs advanced semiconductor manufacturing facilities to build the worlds first useful quantum computer, and the Fast Company award recognizes this unprecedented collaboration.

This years list honors businesses that are making the biggest impact on their industries and culture as a whole. These companies are creating the future today with some of the most inspiring accomplishments of the 21st century. In addition to the World's 50 Most Innovative Companies, 528 organizations are recognized across 52 categories.

Quantum computing is anticipated to unlock the solutions to otherwise impossible problems and enable extraordinary advances across a broad range of applications including climate, healthcare, life sciences, energy and beyond. Whether its improving carbon capture catalysts, optimizing the energy grid, or modelling the chemistries of lifesaving drugs or new battery materials, quantum computers are key to solving many of the worlds most demanding challenges that will forever be beyond the capabilities of any conventional computer.

World-changing applications require a large-scale, fault-tolerant quantum computer built in a scalable and proven manufacturing environment. Silicon photonics and semiconductor chip manufacturing offer the scalability and manufacturability needed to deliver a commercially useful quantum computer on any sensible time or money scale.

PsiQuantum is building the worlds first commercially useful, fault-tolerant quantum computer based on breakthroughs in silicon photonics and quantum architecture. Its team of world-renowned quantum computing experts has developed unique technology in which single photons (particles of light) are manipulated using complex photonic circuits, patterned onto a silicon chip using standard semiconductor manufacturing techniques.

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PsiQuantum and GF demonstrated a world-first ability to manufacture core quantum components, such as single-photon sources and single-photon detectors, with precision and in volume, representing a significant milestone in PsiQuantums roadmap to deliver a large-scale quantum computer. Fast Company recognized the collaboration between PsiQuantum and GF as one of the 10 most innovative joint ventures of 2022, an award category defined by Fast Company as "the best business pairings, whether one-off collaborations or new companies".

"A commercially useful quantum computer has to be large, fault-tolerant, manufacturable, and scalable," said Fariba Danesh, chief operating officer at PsiQuantum. "We have identified a clear path for building a large-scale quantum computer, leveraging our unique technology in silicon photonics and quantum system architecture, and the scalable and proven manufacturing processes of our semiconductor partner GF."

"We are proud that our partnership with PsiQuantum has been recognized as one of the most innovative business pairings of 2022," said Amir Faintuch, senior vice president and general manager of Computing and Wired Infrastructure at GF. "Our partnership is a powerful combination of PsiQuantums photonic quantum computing expertise and GFs silicon photonics manufacturing capability that will transform industries and technology applications across climate, energy, healthcare, materials science, and government."

Fast Companys editors and writers sought out the most groundbreaking businesses across the globe and industries. They also judged nominations received through their application process. The Worlds Most Innovative Companies is Fast Companys signature franchise and one of its most highly anticipated editorial efforts of the year. It provides both a snapshot and a road map for the future of innovation across the most dynamic sectors of the economy.

"The worlds most innovative companies play an essential role in addressing the most pressing issues facing society, whether theyre fighting climate change by spurring decarbonization efforts, ameliorating the strain on supply chains, or helping us reconnect with one another over shared passions," said Fast Company Deputy Editor David Lidsky.

For the second year in a row, coinciding with the issue launch, Fast Company will host its Most Innovative Companies Summit on April 26 27. The virtual, multi-day summit celebrates the Most Innovative Companies in business and provides an early look at major business trends and an inside look at what it takes to innovate in 2022. Fast Companys Most Innovative Companies issue (March/April 2022) is available online here, as well as in app form via iTunes and on newsstands beginning March 15. The hashtag is #FCMostInnovative.

About PsiQuantum

Powered by breakthroughs in silicon photonics and quantum architecture, PsiQuantum is building the first commercially useful quantum computer to solve some of the worlds most important challenges. PsiQuantum believes silicon photonics is the only way to achieve the necessary scale required to deliver a fault-tolerant, general-purpose quantum computer. With quantum chips now being manufactured in a world-leading semiconductor fab, PsiQuantum is uniquely positioned to deliver quantum capabilities that will drive advances in climate, healthcare, finance, energy, agriculture, transportation, communications, and beyond. To learn more, visit http://www.psiquantum.com.

Follow PsiQuantum: LinkedIn

About Fast Company

Fast Company is the only media brand fully dedicated to the vital intersection of business, innovation, and design, engaging the most influential leaders, companies, and thinkers on the future of business. Headquartered in New York City, Fast Company is published by Mansueto Ventures LLC, along with our sister publication Inc., and can be found online at http://www.fastcompany.com.

2022 PsiQuantum. PsiQuantum and our logo are trademarks of PsiQuantum, Corp. in the U.S. and other countries. All other trademarks are the property of their respective holders.

View source version on businesswire.com: https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20220315005492/en/

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PsiQuantums Partnership with GlobalFoundries Named to Fast Companys Worlds Most Innovative Companies List - Yahoo Finance

Newswise ALBUQUERQUE, N.M. Postdoctoral researchers who are designated Truman and Hruby fellows experience Sandia National Laboratories differently from their peers.

Appointees to the prestigious fellowships are given the latitude to pursue their own ideas, rather than being trained by fitting into the research plans of more experienced researchers. To give wings to this process, the four annual winners two for each category are 100 percent pre-funded for three years. This enables them, like bishops or knights in chess, to cut across financial barriers, walk into any group and participate in work by others that might help illuminate the research each has chosen to pursue.

The extraordinary appointments are named for former President Harry Truman and former Sandia President Jill Hruby, now the U.S. Department of Energy undersecretary for nuclear security and administrator of the National Nuclear Security Administration.

Truman wrote to the president of Bell Labs that he had an opportunity, in managing Sandia in its very earliest days, to perform exceptional service in the national interest. ThePresident Harry S. Truman Fellowship in National Security Science and Engineeringcould be said to assert Sandias intention to continue to fulfill Trumans hope.

TheJill Hruby Fellowship in National Security Science and Engineeringoffers the same pay, benefits and privileges as the Truman. It honors former Sandia President Jill Hruby, the first woman to direct a national laboratory. While all qualified applicants will be considered for this fellowship, and its purpose is to pursue independent research to develop advanced technologies to ensure global peace, another aim is to develop a cadre of women in the engineering and science fields who are interested in technical leadership careers in national security.

The selectees are:

Alicia Magann: The quantum information science toolkit

To help speed the emergence of quantum computers as important research tools, Alicia Magann is working to create a quantum information science toolkit. These modeling and simulation algorithms should enable quantum researchers to hit the ground running with meaningful science as quantum computing hardware improves, she says.

Her focus will extend aspects of her doctoral research at Princeton University to help explore the possibilities of quantum control in the era of quantum computing.

At Sandia, she will be working with Sandias quantum computer science department to develop algorithms for quantum computers that can be used to study the control of molecular systems.

Im most interested in probing how interactions between light and matter can be harnessed towards new science and technology, Magann said. How well can we control the behavior of complicated quantum systems by shining laser light on them? What kinds of interesting dynamics can we create, and what laser resources do we need?

A big problem, she says, is that its so difficult to explore these questions in much detail on conventional computers. But quantum computers would give us a much more natural setting for doing this computational exploration.

Her mentor, Mohan Sarovar, is an ideal mentor because hes knowledgeable about quantum control and quantum computing the two fields Im connecting with my project.

During her doctoral research, Magann was a DOE Computational Science Graduate Fellow and also served as a graduate intern in Sandias extreme-scale data science and analytics department, where she heard by word of mouth about the Truman and Hruby fellowships. She applied for both and was thrilled to be interviewed and thrilled to be awarded the Truman.

Technical journals in which her work has been published include Quantum, Physical Review A, Physical Review Research, PRX Quantum, and IEEE Transactions on Control Systems Technology. One of her most recent 2021 publications is Digital Quantum Simulation of Molecular Dynamics & Control in Physical Review Research.

Gabriel Shipley: Mitigating instabilities at Sandias Z machine

When people mentioned the idea to Gabe Shipley about applying for a Truman fellowship, he scoffed. He hadnt gone to an Ivy League school. He hadnt studied with Nobel laureates. What he had done, by the time he received his doctorate in electrical engineering from the University of New Mexico in 2021, was work at Sandia for eight years as an undergraduate student intern from 2013 and a graduate student intern since 2015. He wasnt sure that counted.

The candidates for the Truman are rock stars, Shipley told colleague Paul Schmit. When they graduate, theyre offered tenure track positions at universities.

Schmit, himself a former Truman selectee and in this case a walking embodiment of positive reinforcement, advised, Dont sell yourself short.

That was good advice. Shipley needed to keep in mind that as a student, he led 75 shots on Mykonos, a relatively small Sandia pulsed power machine, significantly broadening its use. I was the first person to execute targeted physics experiments on Mykonos, he said. He measured magnetic field production using miniature magnetic field probes and optically diagnosed dielectric breakdown in the target.

He used the results to convince management to let him lead seven shots on Sandias premier Z machine, an expression of confidence rarely bestowed upon a student. I got amazing support from colleagues, he said. These are the best people in the world.

Among them is theoretical physicist Steve Slutz, who theorized that a magnetized target, preheated by a laser beam, would intensify the effect of Zs electrical pulse to produce record numbers of fusion reactions. Shipley has worked to come up with physical solutions that would best embody that theory.

With Sandia physicist Thomas Awe, he developed methods that may allow researchers to scrap external structures called Helmholtz coils to provide magnetic fields and instead create them using only an invented architecture that takes advantage of Zs own electrical current.

His Truman focus investigating the origins and evolution of 3D instabilities in pulsed-power-driven implosions would ameliorate a major problem with Z pinches if what he finds proves useful. Instabilities have been recognized since at least the 1950s as weakening pinch effectiveness. They currently limit the extent of compression and confinement achievable in the fusion fuel. Mitigating their effect would be a major achievement for everyone at Z and a major improvement for every researcher using those facilities.

Shipley has authored articles in the journal Physics of Plasmas and provided invited talks at the Annual Meeting of the APS Division of Plasma Physics and the 9thFundamental Science with Pulsed Power: Research Opportunities and User Meeting. His most recent publication in Physics of Plasmas, Design of Dynamic Screw Pinch Experiments for Magnetized Liner Inertial Fusion, represents another attempt to increase Z machine output.

Sommer Johansen: Wheres the nitrogen?

Sommer Johansen received her doctorate in physical chemistry from the University of California, Davis, where her thesis involved going backward in time to explore the evolution of prebiotic molecules in the form of cyclic nitrogen compounds; her time machine consisted of combining laboratory spectroscopy and computational chemistry to learn how these molecules formed during the earliest stages of our solar system.

Cyclic nitrogen-containing organic molecules are found on meteorites, but we have not directly detected them in space. So how were they formed and why havent we found where that happens? she asked.

That work, funded by a NASA Earth and Space Science Fellowship, formed the basis of publications in The Journal of Physical Chemistry and resulted in the inaugural Lewis E. Snyder Astrochemistry Award at the International Symposium on Molecular Spectroscopy. The work also was the subject of an invited talk she gave at the Harvard-Smithsonian Center for Astrophysics Stars & Planets Seminar in 2020.

At Sandia, she intends to come down to Earth, both literally and metaphorically, by experimenting at Sandias Combustion Research Facility in Livermore on projects of her own design.

She hopes to help improve comprehensive chemical kinetics models of the after-effects on Earths planetary ecology of burning bio-derived fuels and the increasingly severe forest fires caused by climate change.

Every time you burn something that was alive, nitrogen-containing species are released, she says. However, the chemical pathways of organic nitrogen-containing species are vastly under-represented in models of combustion and atmospheric chemistry, she says. We need highly accurate models to make accurate predictions. For example, right now it isnt clear how varying concentrations of different nitrogenated compounds within biofuels could affect efficiency and the emission of pollutants, she said.

Johansen will be working with the gas-phase chemical physics department, studying gas-phase nitrogen chemistry at Sandias Livermore site under the mentorship of Lenny Sheps and Judit Zdor. UC Davis is close to Livermore, and the Combustion Research Facility there was always in the back of my mind. I wanted to go there, use the best equipment in the world and work with some our fields smartest people.

She found particularly attractive that the Hruby fellowship not only encouraged winners to work on their own projects but also had a leadership and professional development component to help scientists become well-rounded. Johansen had already budgeted time outside lab work at UC Davis, where for five years she taught or helped assistants teach a workshop for incoming graduate students on the computer program Python. We had 30 people a year participating, until last year (when we went virtual) and had 150.

The program she initiated, she says, became a permanent fixture in my university.

Alex Downs: Long-lived wearable biosensors

As Alex Downs completed her doctorate at the University of California, Santa Barbara, in August 2021, she liked Sandia on LinkedIn. The Hruby postdoc listing happened to show up, she said, and it interested her. She wanted to create wearable biosensors for long duration, real-time molecular measurements of health markers that would be an ongoing measurement of a persons well-being. This would lessen the need to visit doctors offices and labs for evaluations that were not only expensive but might not register the full range of a persons illness.

Her thesis title was Electrochemical Methods for Improving Spatial Resolution, Temporal Resolution, and Signal Accuracy of Aptamer Biosensors.

She thought, Theres a huge opportunity here for freedom to explore my research interests. I can bring my expertise in electrochemistry and device fabrication and develop new skills working with microneedles and possibly other sensing platforms. That expertise is needed because a key problem with wearable biosensors is that in the body, they degrade. To address this, Downs wants to study the stability of different parts of the sensor interface when its exposed to bodily fluids, like blood.

I plan not only to make the sensors longer lasting by improved understanding of how the sensors are impacted by biofouling in media, I will also investigate replacing the monolayers used in the present sensor design with new, more fouling resistant monolayers, she said.

The recognition element for this type of biosensor are aptamers strands of DNA that bind specifically to a given target, such as a small molecule or protein. When you add a reporter to an aptamer sequence and put it down on a conductive surface, you can measure target binding to the sensor as a change in electrochemical signal, she said.

The work fits well with Sandias biological and chemical sensors team, and when Downs came to Sandia in October, she was welcomed with coffee and donuts from her mentor Ronen Polsky, an internationally recognized expert in wearable microneedle sensors. Polsky introduced her to other scientists, told her of related projects and discussed research ideas.

Right now, meeting with people all across the Labs has been helpful, she said. Later, I look forward to learning more about the Laboratory Directed Research and Development review process, going to Washington, D.C. and learning more about how science policy works. But right now, Im mainly focused on setting up a lab to do the initial experiments for developing microneedle aptamer-based sensors, Downs said.

Sandia National Laboratories is a multimission laboratory operated by National Technology and Engineering Solutions of Sandia LLC, a wholly owned subsidiary of Honeywell International Inc., for the U.S. Department of Energys National Nuclear Security Administration. Sandia Labs has major research and development responsibilities in nuclear deterrence, global security, defense, energy technologies and economic competitiveness, with main facilities in Albuquerque, New Mexico, and Livermore, California.

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Truman and Hruby 2022 fellows explore their positions - Newswise

Nothing can escape a black hole. General relativity is very clear on this point. Cross a black holes event horizon, and you are forever lost to the universe. Except thats not entirely true. Its true according to Einsteins theory, but general relativity is a classical model. It doesnt take into account the quantum aspects of nature. For that, youd need a quantum theory of gravity, which we dont have. But we do have some ideas about some of the effects of quantum gravity, and one of the most interesting is Hawking radiation.

One way to study quantum gravity is to look at how quantum objects might behave in curved space. Typically in quantum theory, we assume space is a fixed and flat background. Special relativity still applies, but general relativity doesnt. Basically, we just ignore gravity since its effects are so teeny. This works great for things like atoms in Earths gravity. But quantum mechanics around the event horizon of a black hole is very different.

Hawking wasnt the first to study the quantum effects of black holes, but he did show that event horizons arent immutable. If a quantum object was forever bound by a black hole, we would know with absolute certainty where the object is. But quantum systems are fuzzy, and there is always an uncertainty to their location. We could say the quantum object is probably within the black hole, there is a small chance it isnt. This means that over time objects can quantum tunnel past the event horizon and escape. This causes the black hole to lose a bit of mass, and the less mass a black hole has, the more easily quantum objects can escape.

So black holes can emit faint energy thanks to Hawking radiation. Whats interesting about this is that the effects connect black holes to thermodynamics. Since black holes emit some light, they, therefore, have a temperature. From this simple fact, physicists have developed the theory of black hole thermodynamics, which helps us understand what happens when black holes merge, among other things.

Its brilliant stuff, but the problem is we have never observed Hawking radiation. Most physicists think it does occur, but we cant prove it. And given (theoretically) how faint Hawking radiation is, and how far away even the closest black holes are, we arent likely to detect Hawking radiation in the foreseeable future. So instead, scientists look at analog systems such as water vortices or optical systems that have horizon-like properties.

A recent study in Physical Review Letters looks at optical black hole analogs, and found an interesting effect of Hawking radiation. One way to simulate black holes is to create a constrained packet of light in a non-linear optical material. The material acts as a kind of one-way gate, so photons can enter the packet in only one direction (like the one-way nature of a black hole event horizon). At the other side of the packet, photons can only leave, which is similar to a hypothetical white hole. So the optical system models a black-hole/white-hole pair.

The team used computer simulations to study what would happen when a quantum system passes through the simulated pair. They found that the pair could be used to create a quantum effect known as entanglement. When two particles are created as a quantum pair, they are entangled, which means an interaction with one particle affects the other as well. We think that when particles escape a black hole via Hawking radiation, they do so as entangled pairs. According to this latest work, the simulated black-hole/white-hole pair can be used to change the entanglement of a system passing through it. The system can even be tuned so that the entanglement is strengthened or weakened.

This work supports the idea that Hawking radiation occurs in entangled pairs, but it also shows how entanglement could be tweaked experimentally, which would be very useful to other research, such as information theory and quantum computing. The next step is to actually perform this kind of experiment in the lab. If it works as predicted, we could have a powerful new way to study quantum systems.

Reference: Agullo, Ivan, Anthony J. Brady, and Dimitrios Kranas. Quantum Aspects of Stimulated Hawking Radiation in an Optical Analog White-Black Hole Pair. Physical Review Letters 128.9 (2022): 091301.

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A new way to Confirm Hawking's Idea That Black Holes Give off Radiation - Universe Today