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Professor Massimiliano Sala of the University of Trento in Italy recently discussed the future of blockchain technology as it relates to encryption and quantum computing with the crew at Ripple as part of the companys ongoing university lecture series.

Salas discussion focused on the potential threat posed by quantum computers as the technology matures. According to the professor, current encryption methods could be easy for tomorrows quantum computers to solve, thus putting entire blockchains at risk.

Per Sala:

What the professor is referring to is a hypothetical paradigm called Q-day, a point at which quantum computers become sufficiently powerful and available for bad actors to break classical encryption methods.

While this would have far-reaching implications for any field where data security is important including emergency services, infrastructure, banking and defense it could theoretically devastate the world of cryptocurrency and blockchain.

Specifically, Sala warned that all classical public-key cryptosystems should be replaced with counterparts secure against quantum attacks. The idea here is that a future quantum computer or quantum attack algorithm could crack the encryption on these keys using mathematical brute force.

It bears mention that Bitcoin, the worlds most popular cryptocurrency and blockchain, would fall under this category.

While there currently exists no practical quantum computer capable of such a feat, governments and science institutions around the globe have been preparing for Q-day as if its an eventuality. For his part, Sala said that such an event may not be imminent. However, physicists at dozens of academic and commercial laboratories have demonstrated breakthroughs that have led many in the field to believe such systems could arrive within a matter of years.

Ultimately, Sala said hes satisfied with the progress being made in the sector and recommends that blockchain developers continue to work with encryption experts who understand the standards and innovations surrounding quantum-proofing modern systems.

Related: Harvard built hacker-proof quantum network in Boston using existing fiber cable

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Ripple publishes math prof's warning: 'Public-key cryptosystems should be replaced' - Cointelegraph

Quantum computers differ fundamentally from classical computers. Classical computer chips rely on billions of transistors, each in a binary state of either on or off. A quantum computer, on the other hand, uses qubits instead of transistors, and these qubits can exist in multiple states simultaneously, thanks to quantum mechanics principles like superposition and entanglement. This means that a qubit can be on, off, or in a combination of both states, providing a vast range of possibilities in processing. The state of a qubit can be altered by observation, a phenomenon known as the Schrdinger effect. While quantum computers excel at solving certain problems, they do not replace classical computers entirely.

As quantum computing technology advances, there is a growing need for operating systems that can support quantum computing frameworks. In this article, we will explore the intersection of Linux and quantum computing, focusing on how Linux-based operating systems are becoming pivotal in the development and deployment of quantum computing technologies. We will also examine recent advancements in quantum computing, the role of Linux in quantum programming environments, and how Linux distributions are adapting to support quantum computing frameworks.

Related: How To Get Started in Quantum Early Adopters Offer Advice

As mentioned, quantum computing uses the principles of quantum mechanics, such as quantum entanglement, to perform calculations that would be practically impossible for classical computers, including even multi-GPU supercomputers. Because qubits can exist in multiple states at once, quantum computers can conduct parallel computations to solve the most complex of problems.

Over the past few decades, quantum computing and its theoretical underpinnings have come a long way. Major tech companies like Google and IBM have made substantial investments in the field. IBM among others has even made their quantum computers available online, allowing anyone to learn about the specifics of quantum computing and run workloads through quantum logic gates.

The open-source nature of Linux has enabled developers to develop operating systems that are both flexible and robust. Linux is inherently compatible with most of the software and tools used in the quantum computing environment.

Several quantum programming languages and frameworks, including IBMs Qiskit, Googles Cirq, and QuTiP (Quantum Toolbox in Python), run natively on Linux-based systems. Additionally, Linux readily supports containerization technologies like Docker and container orchestration tools like Kubernetes, core components in quantum computing environments. Containerization allows developers to package quantum computing applications and their dependencies in self-contained, portable units, facilitating deployment and management, even at scale and across various hardware architectures.

Linux distributions must evolve to meet the developing needs of quantum computing programming and research. Various Linux distributions make it easy for developers to install and maintain quantum computing tools by providing specialized packages and repositories for quantum computing software. Ubuntu, Fedora, and Debian are among these distributions.

Additionally, some Linux distributors are exploring quantum computing simulators and emulators, enabling users to experiment with quantum algorithms and workflows even without physical access to hardware. This development bridges the gap for Linux users, giving them access to both classical and quantum computing systems, which had been previously available mainly to Windows and MacOS users.

There have also been advancements in the compatibility between Linux distributions and quantum processors. As quantum computing technology becomes more affordable and accessible, Linux distributions must ensure integration with quantum computing processing units and peripherals. The integration allows users to take advantage of quantum acceleration for specific workloads, enhancing computational capabilities.

Linux, famous for its Unix-based operating system, is celebrated for its flexibility, scalability, and open-source ethos, making it well-suited for quantum computing applications. Several factors underscore Linuxs growing role in the quantum computing environment.

Linux enables developers to customize their computing environments to suit their specific personal or organizational needs. This flexibility has proven crucial in ensuring Linux remains up to date with quantum computing demands.

Linux operating systems are inherently highly compatible with various hardware architectures, making them well-suited for quantum computing platforms.

Linux has a vibrant open-source community that encourages knowledge exchange and cooperation. This communal ethos accelerates progress in quantum computing research because of the exchange of ideas and resources.

Security is of paramount importance in quantum computing systems, especially in handling sensitive data and cryptographic algorithms. Linux stands out with its robust security features, coupled with its extensive support for encryption and authentication, making it an ideal choice for operating systems powering quantum computing systems and applications.

Several different software packages for Linux have been specifically designed for quantum computing research and development. These packagescome with essential tools and libraries. Here are a few examples.

Qiskit is IBMs quantum computing development framework, written in Python. It offers a toolkit for quantum computing circuit design, simulation, and execution. Known for its compatibility with multiple Linux distributions, Qiskit is in wideuse.

QuTiP, short for Quantum Toolbox in Python, is a Python software package for quantum computing simulations. Built on Python and the NumPy library, QuTiP offers a wide range of functionalities for simulating quantum computing systems. QuTiP is compatible with most Linux distributions, and it is frequently used for quantum optical applications and quantum information science.

ProjectQ is an open-source quantum computing framework developed in Python. It is useful for simplifying the development of quantum computing algorithms and applications. It achieves this by providing high-level intuitive APIs (application programming interfaces) and abstractions. Compatible with most Linux distributions, ProjectQ also supports various quantum backends.

Linux has gained major tractionin the quantum computing space in recent years. However, several challenges persist. One such challenge is optimizing Linux distributions for quantum computing hardware, which requires specialized drivers and low-level optimizations. Additionally, security remains an ongoing concern that requires focused attention to mitigate potential threats.

Despite these challenges, Linux is positioned favorably to play a significant role in quantum computing systems. As the fieldexpands, Linux software packages and distributions tailored for quantum computing are becoming increasingly prevalent and evolving alongside advancements. Collaboration with open-source communities also has the potential to drive innovation and accelerate development in the space.

Linux has emerged as a foundational element in the evolution of quantum computing systems. Linuxs inherent customizability, compatibility, security, and robustness make it an ideal operating system for quantum computing. As this transformative technology continues to evolve, Linux looks set to maintain its essential role in shaping its future.

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Explore the Growing Role of Linux in Quantum Computing - ITPro Today

In todays podcast, web editor Nicole Raleigh speaks with PASQALS technical business developer Europe, Krisztian Benyo, PhD, about the pharma applications and commercialisation of quantum science.

Quantum computing is nowadays a source of hope for dealing with problems that are too complex for classical computers. By leveraging the principles of quantum physics, quantum processing units can store loads of information simultaneously and perform exceptionally well in tackling problems with a large number of combinations.

So it is that PASQAL, in collaboration with Qubit Pharmaceuticals, is developing a hybrid quantum/classical approach that uses a classical algorithm to find the water density information in a protein and then a quantum algorithm to locate the water molecules inside any pocket, even in the buried ones. Benyo dives into the details for listeners.

You can listen to episode 133a of thepharmaphorum podcastin the player below, download the episode to your computer, or find it - and subscribe to the rest of the series - iniTunes,Spotify,acast,Stitcher,andPodbean.

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The commercialisation of quantum science in pharma - pharmaphorum

Quantum computers that are more powerful than the fastest supercomputers could be closer than experts have predicted, researchers from startup Nord Quantique argue.

That's because the company has built an individual error-correcting physical qubit that could dramatically cut the number of qubits needed to achieve quantum advantage (which is where quantum computers are genuinely useful).

Eventually, this could lead to a machine that achieves quantum supremacy where a quantum computer is more powerful than classical computers.

Unlike classical bits that encode data as 1 or 0, qubits rely on the laws of quantum mechanics to achieve "coherence" and encode data as a superposition of 1 or 0 meaning data is encoded in both states simultaneously.

In quantum computers, multiple qubits can be stitched together through quantum entanglement where qubits can share the same information no matter how far they are separated over time or space to process calculations in parallel, while classical computers can only process calculations in sequence.

But qubits are "noisy," meaning they are highly prone to interference from their environment, such as changes in temperature, which leads to high error rates. For that reason, they often need to be cooled to near absolute zero, but even then they can still fall into "decoherence" midway through calculations and fail due to external factors.

Related: How could this new type of room-temperature qubit usher in the next phase of quantum computing?

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This high error rate means a quantum computer would need to have millions of qubits to achieve quantum supremacy. But today's most powerful quantum computers contain just 1,000 qubits.

This is why research is heavily focused on reducing qubit error rate. One way to reduce errors is by building a "logical qubit," in which several qubits are entangled to behave as one effective, error-free qubit during calculations. This relies on redundancy a concept in computer science in which the same data is stored in multiple places.

Scientists at Nord Quantique have taken a different approach, instead designing an individual physical qubit, then applying "bosonic codes" during operation to reduce errors at the individual qubit level. They outlined their findings in a study published April 12 in the journal Physical Review Letters. Bosonic codes are error-correcting codes designed specifically for systems that use bosonic modes such as photons. They exploit bosons' quantum properties to protect information against errors.

Nord Quantique's scientists built one "bosonic qubit," which is around the size of a walnut, from up to 10 microwave photons, or light particles, that resonate in a highly pure superconducting aluminum cavity which is cooled to near absolute zero.

The bosonic codes were then applied while calculations were underway to correct two types of quantum errors "bit-flips," or when 0s and 1s are read as each other; and "phase-flips," when the probability of a qubit being either positive or negative is flipped.

Their bosonic codes extended the coherence time of individual qubits by 14%, which the scientists said is the best result to date. Simulations also showed that error correction is not only viable but likely to be stronger when adding additional qubits to the existing single qubit, scientists wrote in their paper.

Using just hundreds of these qubits in a quantum computer could lead to quantum advantage rather than the millions of qubits scientists have previously thought we would need, study co-author and Nord Quantique's chief technology officer, Julien Camirand Lemyre, told Live Science. The increased qubit lifetime, thanks to the design, coupled with claimed operational clock speeds of up to 1,000 times more than comparable machines, means vastly more calculations can be performed in this short window. It means the "overhead" of redundant qubits is not required versus a machine that uses no error correction or even one with logical qubits.

Other companies, such as Quantinuum and QuEra, are using different approaches to reduce the error rate, but most rely on logical qubits. Lemyre argued his company's approach is better than this "brute force" method.

"Nord Quantique's approach to building qubits involves building the redundancy necessary for error correction directly into the hardware that makes up each physical qubit. So, in a sense we are making physical qubits into logical qubits through a combination of our unique architecture and use of what we call bosonic codes," Lemyre said.

Still, obstacles to quantum supremacy remain. Lemyre noted that larger quantum computers will need "a handful of physical qubits" to correct the few errors the bosonic codes miss.

The company's next step is to finish building a system, expected by Fall of this year, with multiple error-correcting physical qubits. If everything goes to plan, Nord Quantique is hoping to release a quantum computer with about 100 of these qubits by 2028, Lemyre said.

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Quantum computing breakthrough could happen with just hundreds, not millions, of qubits using new error-correction ... - Livescience.com

In 1981, physicist Richard Feynman first theorized the creation of quantum computers that harnessed the principles of quantum physics to process calculations that would take standard computers millennia or longer to compute. Over the next four decades, however, research failed to advance significantly enough for the machines to have much impact on society.

But breakthroughs in 2023 signaled that quantum computers have embarked on a new era, one that may unleash a technological revolution full of possibilitiessome good and some bad. On the positive side, quantum computers could lead to the development of new drugs to combat cancer. On the negative side, however, they can break the encryption we use multiple times per day for everything from sending texts to financial transactions.

But this isnt the first quantum race in history that pitted the U.S. against its adversariesand the past provides a guide for how the U.S. can win the coming computing revolution. In the 1940s, a quantum race produced the creation of nuclear weapons and unleashed a technology explosion. Crucially, the U.S. won the competition to harness the new technology. Not only did American scientists create the first nuclear weapons, but advancements in lasers and in chips for computers made the U.S. the home for global innovation.

That only happened, however, because policymakers supplied the funding and support necessary to ensure superiority. In 2024, by contrast, a key quantum funding bill has stalled while allies and adversaries are sinking billions into quantum research and development. Without action, history shows that the U.S. risks falling behind especially in leadership for the revolutionary power of quantum technologies.

Quantum physics developed in Europe in the 1920s and 1930s. As World War II erupted in the 1930s and 1940s, German, Hungarian, and Italian physicists escaped to the U.S. Many of them joined J. Robert Oppenheimer and his American colleagues in the Manhattan Projectwhich birthed the atomic bomb and simultaneously elevated the U.S. as the home for quantum science.

In the ensuing decades, Feynman and other scientists who cut their teeth on the Manhattan Project inspired profound innovation from quantum physics that became woven into the fabric of American life. The first quantum revolution created nuclear weapons and energy, global positioning systems, lasers, magnetic resonance imaging, and the chips that would power the rise of the personal computer.

Read More: Quantum Computers Could Solve Countless ProblemsAnd Create a Lot of New Ones

Although many countries like the Soviet Union built nuclear weapons, none rivaled the U.S. in pioneering innovation. The Soviet launch of Sputnik in 1957 and the space race produced an explosion of federal funding for science and education that was at the root of American success. Further, the Department of Defense provided crucial sponsorship for visionary, but risky, research that developed the internet, stealth capabilities, and voice assistants like Siri. This combination propelled the U.S. to unparalleled innovation heights in the decades after World War II.

The technologies born from the first quantum revolution were at the core of American national defense, and also reshaped civilian life in the U.S., most especially through the development of personal computers and the Information Revolution.

But even as personal computers were beginning to revolutionize American life in 1981, Feynman insisted in a pivotal lecture that something more was possible. He argued that a quantum computer with processing power magnitudes greater than even the highest performing computer then in existence offered the only way to unlock the true knowledge of the world. Feynman admitted, however, that building such a machine required staggering complexity.

The ensuing four decades have proved him correct on the obstacles involved. Designing a quantum computer required tremendous advances in theory as well as materials and components. Since the 1980s, progress has crept along, and many joked that quantum computers would always be 10 to 20 years away.

In 1994, mathematician Peter Shor discovered an algorithm that created a method for a quantum computer to calculate the large prime numbers used in encryption. Despite this breakthrough, the pace of developments since Shors discovery has remained glacial. Persistent funding from the National Security Agency and the Department of Defense especially the former has sustained innovation, but the results have been uneven, because scientists have been unable to build a quantum computer that wasnt plagued by errors.

In the past 10 years, private technology companies such as IBM, Google, and Microsoft have made significant investments in quantum computing, which have pushed the field to new heights of maturity and accelerated a global race for quantum dominance one with major national security and cybersecurity implications.

Even so, todays quantum computers still have yet to outperform standard computers due to regular errors caused by radiation, heat, or improper materials. These errors make quantum computers useless for things like, for example, designing new drugs, because scientists cant replicate an experiment accurately. But all of that is changing quickly.

Advances by IBM and a Harvard team in 2023 demonstrated that error correction is on the horizon and the era of quantum utility has arrived. In July 2023, IBM announced peer reviewed evidence from experiments that indicated the company had made strides in mitigating the errors that have long plagued quantum computing. A few months later in December, a Harvard team and the company QuEra published encouraging results from experiments that showed they too had developed a quantum process with enhanced error-correction.

Read More: How the AI Revolution Will Reshape the World

But its not only American companies and universities trying to figure out how to mitigate the errors that have limited the possibilities of quantum computers. Over the last 15 years, Chinese physicists have undertaken an ambitious program aimed at making their country the world leader in quantum technologies. One estimate pegs China which has invested over $15 billion in the project as a leader or near equal to the U.S. in this new realm of science. In 2023, results from experiments suggested that Chinese physicists were notching impressive achievements that may enable them to construct a quantum computer that could outpace those developed in the U.S.

The consequences of Chinese superiority in this realm would be seismic. The U.S.s foremost adversary would then be able to crack the encryption Americans use every day for secure internet traffic and messaging, and which the U.S. government and its allies use to protect secret communications. One organization projects that the world has a mere six years before this capacity exists. Other estimates insist that date is as far as 10 years away. But it is coming fast.

That means the U.S. has to get out ahead of this impending technology to forestall disastrous consequences in every realm of American life. In May 2022 the White House announced plans to prepare the nation for post-quantum encryption alongside efforts being undertaken by private companies like Apple and Google. But Congress failed to renew a landmark federal funding bill for quantum research and development in 2023. Meanwhile, China and European countries are not flinching at devoting billions to quantum.

Quantum computing breakthroughs in 2023 herald a bright future that will transform life and economics. Technology sits on the cusp of fulfilling Feynmans vision and understanding the world and universe unlike ever before. An error-correcting quantum computer would launch the second quantum revolution, and a race is on to preserve the U.S.s leadership in science for one of the 21st centurys most prized technologies. To win that race, the federal government needs to make a concerted push to sustain American preeminence in quantum computing and other quantum technologies like sensing. Thats how the U.S. won the first quantum revolution and the stakes are too high not to learn from this past triumph.

The opinions are those of the author and do not necessarily represent the opinions of LLNL, LLNS, DOE, NNSA, or the U.S. government.

Brandon Kirk Williams is a senior fellow at the Center for Global Security Research at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory.

Made by History takes readers beyond the headlines with articles written and edited by professional historians. Learn more about Made by History at TIME here. Opinions expressed do not necessarily reflect the views of TIME editors.

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History Shows How to Win the Quantum Computing Race - TIME