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Last week OpenAI released DALL-E 2, which produces (or edits) images based on textual prompts; this Twitter thread from @BecomingCritter has a whole host of example output, including Teddy bears working on new AI research on the moon in the 1980s:

A photo of a quaint flower shop storefront with a pastel green and clean white facade and open door and big window:

And, in the most on-the-nose example possible, A human basking in the sun of AGI utopia:

OpenAI has a video describing DALL-E on its website:

While the video does mention a couple of DALL-Es shortcomings, it is quite upbeat about the possibilities; some excerpts:

Dall-E 2 is a new AI system from OpenAI that can take simple text descriptions like A koala dunking a basketball and turn them into photorealistic images that have never existed before. DALL-E 2 can also realistically edit and re-touch photos

DALL-E was created by training a neural network on images and their text descriptions. Through deep learning it not only understands individual objects like koala bears and motorcycles, but learns from relationships between objects, and when you ask DALL-E for an image of a koala bear riding a motorcycle, it knows how to create that or anything else with a relationship to another object or action.

The DALL-E research has three main outcomes: first, it can help people express themselves visually in ways they may not have been able to before. Second, an AI-generated image can tell us a lot about whether the system understands us, or is just repeating what its been taught. Third, DALL-E helps humans understand how AI systems see and understand our world. This is a critical part of developing AI thats useful and safe

Whats exciting about the approach used to train DALL-E is that it can take what it learned from a variety of other labeled images and then apply it to a new image. Given a picture of a monkey, DALL-E can infer what it would look like doing something it has never done before, like paying its taxes while wearing a funny hat. DALL-E is an example of how imaginative humans and clever systems can work together to make new things, amplifying our creative potential.

That last line may raise some eyebrows: at first glance DALL-E looks poised to compete with artists and illustrators; there is another point of view, though, where DALL-E points towards a major missing piece in a metaverse future.

Games have long been on the forefront of technological development, and that is certainly the case in terms of medium. The first computer games were little more than text:

Images followed, usually of the bitmap variety; I remember playing a lot of Where in the world is Carmen San Diego at the library:

Soon games included motion as you navigated a sprite through a 2D world; 3D followed, and most of the last 25 years has been about making 3D games ever more realistic. Nearly all of those games, though, are 3D images on 2D screens; virtual reality offers the illusion of being inside the game itself.

Still, this evolution has had challenges: creating ever more realistic 3D games means creating ever more realistic image textures to decorate all of those polygons; this problem is only magnified in virtual reality. This is one of the reasons even open-world games are ultimately limited in scope, and gameplay is largely deterministic: it is through knowing where you are going, and all of your options to get there, that developers can create all of the assets necessary to deliver an immersive experience.

Thats not to say that games cant have random elements, above and beyond roguelike games that are procedurally generated: the most obvious way to deliver an element of unpredictability is for humans to play each other, albeit in well-defined and controlled environments.

Social networking has undergone a similar medium evolution as games, with a two-decade delay. The earliest forms of social networking on the web were text-based bulletin boards and USENET groups; then came widespread e-mail, AOL chatrooms, and forums. Facebook arrived on the scene in the mid-2000s; one of the things that helped it explode in popularity was the addition of images. Instagram was an image-only social network that soon added video, which is all that TikTok is. And, over the last couple of years in particular, video conferencing through apps like Zoom or Facetime have delivered 3D images on 2D screens.

Still, medium has always mattered less for social networking, just because the social part of it was so inherently interesting. Humans like communicating with other humans, even if that requires dialing up a random BBS to download messages, composing a reply, and dialing back in to send it. Games may be mostly deterministic, but humans are full of surprises.

Moreover, this means that social networking is much cheaper: instead of the platform having to generate all of the content, users generate all of the content themselves. This makes it harder to get a new platform off of the ground, because you need users to attract users, but it also makes said platform far stickier than any game (or, to put it another way, the stickiest games have a network effect of their own).

The first iterations of social networking had no particular algorithmic component other than time: newer posts were at the top (or bottom). That changed with Facebooks introduction of the News Feed in 2006. Now instead of visiting all of your friends pages you could simply browse the feed, which from the very beginning made decisions about what content to include, and in what order.

Over time the News Feed evolved from a relatively straightforward algorithm to one driven by machine learning, with results so inscrutable that it took Facebook six months to fix a recent rankings bug. The impact has been massive: not just Facebook but also Instagram saw huge increases in engagement and increased growth the better their algorithmically-driven feeds became; it was also great for monetization, as the same sort of signals that decided what content you saw also influenced what ads you were presented.

However, the reason why this discussion of algorithmically-driven feeds is in a different section than social networking is because the ultimate example of their power isnt a social network at all: its TikTok. TikTok, of course, is all user-generated content, but the crucial distinction from Facebook is that you arent limited to content from your network: TikTok pulls in the videos it thinks you specifically are most interested in from across its entire network. I explained why this was a blindspot for Facebook in 2020:

What is interesting to point out is why it was inevitable that Facebook missed this: first, Facebook views itself first-and-foremost as a social network, so it is disinclined to see that as a liability. Second, that view was reinforced by the way in which Facebook took on Snapchat. The point of The Audacity of Copying Well is that Facebook leveraged Instagrams social network to halt Snapchats growth, which only reinforced that the network was Facebooks greatest asset, making the TikTok blindspot even larger.

TikTok combines the zero cost nature of user-generated content with a purely algorithmic feed that is divorced from your network; there is a network effect, in that TikTok needs lots of content to choose from, but it doesnt need your specific network.

I get that metaverses were so 2021, but it strikes me that the examples from science fiction, including Snow Crash and Ready Player One, were very game-like in their implementation. Their virtual worlds were created by visionary corporations or, in the case of the latter, a visionary developer who also included a deterministic game for ultimate ownership of the virtual world. Yes, third parties could and did build experiences with strong social components, most famously Da5ids Black Sun club in Snow Crash, but the core mechanic and the core economics were closer to a multi-player game than anything else.

That, though, is exceptionally challenging in the real world: remember, creating games, particularly their art, is expensive, and the expense increases the more immersive the experience is. Social media, on the other hand, is cheap because it uses user-generated content, but that content is generally stuck on more basic mediums text, pictures, and only recently video. Of course that content doesnt necessarily need to be limited to your network an algorithm can deliver anything on the network to any user.

What is fascinating about DALL-E is that it points to a future where these three trends can be combined. DALL-E, at the end of the day, is ultimately a product of human-generated content, just like its GPT-3 cousin. The latter, of course, is about text, while DALL-E is about images. Notice, though, that progression from text to images; it follows that machine learning-generated video is next. This will likely take several years, of course; video is a much more difficult problem, and responsive 3D environments more difficult yet, but this is a path the industry has trod before:

In the very long run this points to a metaverse vision that is much less deterministic than your typical video game, yet much richer than what is generated on social media. Imagine environments that are not drawn by artists but rather created by AI: this not only increases the possibilities, but crucially, decreases the costs.

There is another way to think about DALL-E and GPT and similar machine learning models, and it goes back to my longstanding contention that the Internet is a transformational technology matched only by the printing press. What made the latter revolutionary was that it drastically reduced the marginal cost of consumption; from The Internet and the Third Estate:

Meanwhile, the economics of printing books was fundamentally different from the economics of copying by hand. The latter was purely an operational expense: output was strictly determined by the input of labor. The former, though, was mostly a capital expense: first, to construct the printing press, and second, to set the type for a book. The best way to pay for these significant up-front expenses was to produce as many copies of a particular book that could be sold.

How, then, to maximize the number of copies that could be sold? The answer was to print using the most widely used dialect of a particular language, which in turn incentivized people to adopt that dialect, standardizing languages across Europe. That, by extension, deepened the affinities between city-states with shared languages, particularly over decades as a shared culture developed around books and later newspapers. This consolidation occurred at varying rates England and France several hundred years before Germany and Italy but in nearly every case the First Estate became not the clergy of the Catholic Church but a national monarch, even as the monarch gave up power to a new kind of meritocratic nobility epitomized by Burke.

The Internet has had two effects: the first is to bring the marginal cost of consumption down to zero. Even with the printing press you still needed to print a physical object and distribute it, and that costs money; meanwhile it costs effectively nothing to send this post to anyone in the world who is interested. This has completely upended the publishing industry and destroyed the power of gatekeepers.

The other impact, though, has been on the production side; I wrote about TikTok in Mistakes and Memes:

That phrase, Facebook is compelling for the content it surfaces, regardless of who surfaces it, is oh-so-close to describing TikTok; the error is that the latter is compelling for the content it surfaces, regardless of who creates itTo put it another way, I was too focused on demand the key to Aggregation Theory and didnt think deeply enough about the evolution of supply. User-generated content didnt have to be simply pictures of pets and political rants from people in ones network; it could be the foundation of a new kind of network, where the payoff from Metcalfes Law is not the number of connections available to any one node, but rather the number of inputs into a customized feed.

Machine learning generated content is just the next step beyond TikTok: instead of pulling content from anywhere on the network, GPT and DALL-E and other similar models generate new content from content, at zero marginal cost. This is how the economics of the metaverse will ultimately make sense: virtual worlds needs virtual content created at virtually zero cost, fully customizable to the individual.

Of course there are many other issues raised by DALL-E, many of them philosophical in nature; there has already been a lot of discussion of that over the last week, and there should be a lot more. Still, the economic implications matter as well, and after last weeks announcement the future of the Internet is closer, and weirder, than ever.

Related

The rest is here:
DALL-E, the Metaverse, and Zero Marginal Content - Stratechery by Ben Thompson

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As the metaverse becomes an inevitable part of our future, little is discussed about the ethical implications for marketers entering this new frontier. As we head into 2022, the conversation surrounding this new digital landscape will only accelerate and deepen, with its fair share of cheerleaders and skeptics. On the one hand, I read articles every day from fellow marketing executives salivating at the thought of advertising to people mostly youth in the metaverse. On the other, figures like Elon Musk, Charlamagne tha God and Scott Galloway are doubtful of or outright hostile to the hype behind things like Web3, DeFi, NFTs and, yes, the metaverse.

No matter which side you fall on, I think we can all agree that a serious discussion needs to be had about marketing in the metaverse. What disturbs me is the lack of both prudent, incisive articles about where the humanist line is, and questioning how far we are willing to invade any kind of space. As a digital marketer with decades of experience running an award-winning agency, Ive seen how marketing has been radically transformed by technology for the good and the bad.

Since 2001, Ive built my business on lead intelligence. In that process, Ive used technology that allows me to put tracking code on peoples devices to monitor their engagement levels and literally score them on certain behaviors. When theyre not behaving in a way that benefits my clients, its my job to use persuasive content to push them in a direction that would make them more likely buyers.

So I understand the powerful sword Ive been wielding to sway and shape minds. In the most ideal sense, Ive done it with the aim of getting the right message to the right people at the right time to make educated buying decisions. But as weve seen, the same tools and tactics that can be used for good are the same tools and tactics that have persuaded people to act on and believe in things they previously wouldnt have. If were to gleefully step into a new world like the metaverse and the power is in the wrong hands, an important question must be raised: is this right? Can we go too far? And can the same tools that persuade in a noble way also be used to manipulate both impressionable people and, more critically, the youth?

The answer, simply put, is yes. We are just now coming to grips with the implications of huge social media platforms to steer discourse and impact the next generations mental health. Repeated intrusions into user privacy, rampant misinformation, and pinpoint-accurate political advertising has left regulators wondering about the extent to which, like telecoms, social media may need oversight. For the rest of us the question is: should the likes of Mark Zuckerberg, Microsoft and other Silicon Valley executives really be our shepherds into this brave new world?

While we linger on that question, lets take it one step further to see why the metaverse may become a part of daily life. Unless youve been living under a rock, youve seen how automation coupled with the Great Resignation and remote work has changed how businesses will use human capital in the future. According to Tristan Harris, director of the Netflix hit The Social Dilemma, its almost inevitable that 30% of Americans could be radically unemployable within the next decade.

Youre starting to see this everywhere you look. Kiosks, self-checkout, and self-ordering on iPads are taking over retail and restaurants. The advent of self-driving cars could leave commercial truckers and Uber drivers without work. AI and robotics have even been rumored to someday replace radiologists and other medical personnel.

Only the most specialized, creative, and innovative jobs will retain some level of human touch and those employees can pivot during this sea change. But a large chunk of blue collar and service-sector professions, which together make up nearly 85% of American jobs, will suffer. As the number of permanently unemployed Americans balloons, there will need to be an ever-widening social safety net, including the once-ridiculed possibility of universal basic income (which Andrew Yang popularized during his 2020 campaign) along with expanded welfare, Medicare and related programs.

So how does this perfect storm of automation, AI and UBI play into the idea of the metaverse? Lets remember where the origin of the term metaverse was coined: a 1992 science fiction novel titled Snow Crash where people were provided a refuge from the dystopian reality that they were living in in the form of digital avatars they could use to explore the online world.

Studies show Americans derive a lot of their meaning or purpose in life from work. The term workism is used to describe the phenomenon among Americans that work is not only a means to an economic end, but is a pillar of identity from which we derive much of our meaning. So how does a world where thats increasingly absent look? And furthermore, where will we look for meaning? The metaverse could be that compelling place when its finally seamless: the moment where you cant tell whats real and whats virtual. An alternate universe indistinguishable from your life.

Augmented reality is a prelude to this as Ill discuss below, and stands in as a kind of boiling frog for our current situation where the failure to act against a problematic situation until its already too late is clear.

When all of this does unfold and tech giants make people painfully addicted to the metaverse, marketers will do what they do best: exploit our data, time, attention and privacy for profit.

You were so preoccupied with whether or not you could, you didnt stop to think if you should. Dr. Ian Malcom from Jurassic Park

So here it is, the critical question about the metaverse that no one is asking: just because we can, should we? On a personal level, I wish that the metaverse wouldnt exist; that the bad far outweighs the good in terms of mental health and the ever-widening divide in human contact. But Im not naive enough to think that its anything but inevitable. Maybe not in its current form, but definitely in the future, the metaverse will be here to stay. What I do know is that whether this thing succeeds or fails will be because of people like me marketers and advertisers yearning for exposure for our clients.

Lets be clear: all social media platforms monetize their users by selling data to advertisers. If the metaverse was just a place where you could go ad-free, it wouldnt be able to sustain itself theres no revenue. Therefore, people like me who are against it belong to a larger group of people who will keep it alive if everyday people make the choice to utilize it. Even if we market for noble purposes, itll just keep the metaverse alive long enough for the bad actors to come in and exploit the system.

Knowing my role in this, I dont think that Im in a position to demand that individuals not use the metaverse. What I am saying, though, is to act with caution. Know that youre way more susceptible than youve ever been. And if youre a marketer, know that the next shift of humanity could be radically changed by this platform if we dont use it responsibly. Googles motto was once Dont be evil. With social media, we all gleefully dove in with no thought of consequences. This is our chance to not let history repeat itself.

Its already too late to reverse the damage on current social media platforms. Lets not make the same mistake twice. The power of history is when people learn from their mistakes, especially as we simply cannot fathom the power of this yet. Combined with AI and machine learning, the metaverse can quickly spiral out of our control by adapting to our next move in a way that is so incredibly scary. The pause between our response and the act is the only thing currently separating us from going down the path of destruction as fast as we can. But the adjustment will eventually be seamless, without a moral code to check or monitor it and ask: is this the right thing?

My hope is that the hardware issue in VR is slowing the pace of this down just enough for us to get our act together. Mass adoption hasnt occurred yet, as evidenced by the sales numbers of the Oculus VR headset in comparison to more traditional, handheld competitors like the Nintendo Switch.

We saw the early failure of 3D TV eyewear for home use and in theatres. It was too cumbersome and made our eyes hurt. Even VR in its current form is uncomfortable and can make some feel sick to their stomach. As long as the hardware is a roadblock toward true mass adoption, things like VR and 3D TV will be fun to dabble in as a novelty and little else.

But while everyone is waiting for a truly immersive and fully-sensory VR experience, I believe that the gateway drug for entering the metaverse will be augmented reality or AR. People will buy into this as theyve done with the wildly-popular Pokmon Go or in recent museum exhibits, and AR will pave the way until VR is seamless. AR breaks the barrier to allow us to live in a hybrid world. Once adoption happens and if the world around us isnt as compelling anymore itll expedite our willingness to go deeper and more virtual. AR feels safer currently because to live in a world that is 90% real and 10% fake is still doable. But as we warned in the boiling frog analogy above, that 10% will take up more and more real estate until the jump to VR or something like Elon Musks Neuralink will be the natural progression. At that time the hardware and experience will be so realistic, itll be indistinguishable from the real world.

Instead of collective power we ended up with mass exploitation Krystal Ball

If this past year has proven anything, theres a hunger for more decentralized, user-driven platforms. If the metaverse can stay decentralized, it could be a true force for good that flips the current social media paradigm of the person as a product for data collection and targeting, instead of putting data solely in the hands of the user to monetize as they wish. If we let big tech be the on-ramp, theyll be the big winners at our expense.

My suggestion is that we take this as seriously as the Manhattan Project. If history is any indicator of how slowly government moves remember how long it took to mandate seatbelts in cars? we dont have the time to spend years trying to discover viability, this will be upon us in 3-5 years. To quote one of the Winklevoss twins in the movie The Social Network about how quickly early Facebook took off: If I was a drug dealer, I couldnt give free drugs to 650 people in one day. The next decades drug, if we choose to take it, is a serious problem for humanity and a serious problem for the ethics of marketing.

The metaverse is here whether we like it or not, but we must use it responsibly. Congress is just now trying to figure out how to regulate social media; they are so woefully behind on this new landscape.

In the absence of regulation, we as marketers are going to have to stand in the gap and say: Knowing that the metaverse will probably be the wild west, its our choice whether we want this new frontier to just repeat history, or to become a brave new future. I hope we choose the latter.

Chris Carr is the President and Founder of Farotech

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The critical question about the metaverse that no one is asking - VentureBeat

DUBLIN, April 14, 2022 /PRNewswire/ -- The "Information Services Global Market Report 2022, By Type, Deployment Mode, End-User" report has been added to ResearchAndMarkets.com's offering.

Research and Markets Logo

The global information services market is expected to grow from $136.23 billion in 2021 to $148.28 billion in 2022 at a compound annual growth rate (CAGR) of 8.8%.

The growth is mainly due to the companies rearranging their operations and recovering from the COVID-19 impact, which had earlier led to restrictive containment measures involving social distancing, remote working, and the closure of commercial activities that resulted in operational challenges.

The market is expected to reach $200.33 billion in 2026 at a CAGR of 7.8%

Major companies in the information services market include RELX plc, News Corporation, FUJI MEDIA HOLDINGS INC, The New York Public Library, Thomson Reuters, The New York Times Company, Tribune Media Company, Queens Public Library, King County Library System and Cuyahoga County Public Library.

The information services market consists of the sales of information services by entities (organizations, sole traders, or partnerships) that provide news reports, articles, pictures, public historical documents, photographs, maps, audio material, audiovisual material, and other archival material of historical interest. These entities include news syndicates, libraries, and archives.

The main types of information services are news syndicates, libraries and archives, and all other information services. Libraries refer to a room or set of rooms where books and other literary materials are being kept. Archives is to store old records or documents for accessing them again in the future. The different modes of deployment include online, offline and are used by various sectors such as B2B, B2C.

Asia Pacific was the largest region in the information services market in 2021. Middle East is expected to be the fastest growing region in the forecast period. The regions covered in this report are Asia-Pacific, Western Europe, Eastern Europe, North America, South America, Middle East and Africa.

The rising use of social media for people to connect and communicate with each other is expected to drive the demand for information services during the forecast period. Individuals are using social platforms to share information and to be in touch with their families and friends.

Story continues

More time is being spent on social networking sites is boosting the growth of the internet publishing and broadcasting industry. As of 2019, there were around 3.48 billion people using social media, indicating widespread usage of social media. Rising social media usage is expected to drive the growth of the information services market through rising in demand for news syndicates and online libraries and archives.

Many universities, colleges, and independent libraries are facilitating access to books, audio and video content through digital platforms. They are offering platforms and technologies that can offer access to content through various devices Applications are being developed for desktops, mobile phones, and tablets irrespective of the size of the device screen.

Responsive design and device compatibility are being incorporated to enhance user experience, accessing content through digital platforms. For example, Grand Valley State University Libraries, University of Toronto's Library Catalogue, Princeton University Library, and University of Arizona's Special Collections incorporated responsive design to enhance user experience.

Key Topics Covered:

1. Executive Summary

2. Report Structure

3. Information Services Market Characteristics3.1. Market Definition3.2. Key Segmentations

4. Information Services Market Product Analysis4.1. Leading Products/ Services4.2. Key Features and Differentiators4.3. Development Products

5. Information Services Market Supply Chain5.1. Supply Chain5.2. Distribution5.3. End Customers

6. Information Services Market Customer Information6.1. Customer Preferences6.2. End Use Market Size and Growth

7. Information Services Market Trends And Strategies

8. Impact Of COVID-19 On Information Services

9. Information Services Market Size And Growth9.1. Market Size9.2. Historic Market Growth, Value ($ Billion)9.2.1. Drivers Of The Market9.2.2. Restraints On The Market9.3. Forecast Market Growth, Value ($ Billion)9.3.1. Drivers Of The Market9.3.2. Restraints On The Market

10. Information Services Market Regional Analysis10.1. Global Information Services Market, 2021, By Region, Value ($ Billion)10.2. Global Information Services Market, 2016-2021, 2021-2026F, 2031F, Historic And Forecast, By Region10.3. Global Information Services Market, Growth And Market Share Comparison, By Region

11. Information Services Market Segmentation11.1. Global Information Services Market, Segmentation By Type, Historic and Forecast, 2016-2021, 2021-2026F, 2031F, $ Billion

11.2. Global Information Services Market, Segmentation By Deployment Mode, Historic and Forecast, 2016-2021, 2021-2026F, 2031F, $ Billion

11.3. Global Information Services Market, Segmentation By End-User, Historic and Forecast, 2016-2021, 2021-2026F, 2031F, $ Billion

12. Information Services Market Segments12.1. Global News Syndicates Market, Segmentation By Type, 2016-2021, 2021-2026F, 2031F, Value ($ Billion) -12.2. Global Libraries And Archives Market, Segmentation By Type, 2016-2021, 2021-2026F, 2031F, Value ($ Billion) -12.3. Global All Other Information Services Market, Segmentation By Type, 2016-2021, 2021-2026F, 2031F, Value ($ Billion) -

13. Information Services Market Metrics13.1. Information Services Market Size, Percentage Of GDP, 2016-2026, Global13.2. Per Capita Average Information Services Market Expenditure, 2016-2026, Global

Companies Mentioned

RELX plc.

News Corporation

FUJI MEDIA HOLDINGS INC.

The New York Public Library

Thomson Reuters

The New York Times Company

Tribune Media Company

Queens Public Library

King County Library System

Cuyahoga County Public Library

For more information about this report visit https://www.researchandmarkets.com/r/24v5ik

Media Contact:

Research and Markets Laura Wood, Senior Manager press@researchandmarkets.com

For E.S.T Office Hours Call +1-917-300-0470 For U.S./CAN Toll Free Call +1-800-526-8630 For GMT Office Hours Call +353-1-416-8900

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View original content:https://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/global-information-services-market-report-2022-2026--2030-rising-use-of-social-media-is-expected-to-drive-demand-301525715.html

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Global Information Services Market Report 2022-2026 & 2030: Rising Use of Social Media is Expected to Drive Demand - Yahoo Finance

This article was updated on 27th July, 2016 to modernize the list of suggestions and improve formatting.

Almost all of us use different social media networks to promote our businesses, such as Twitter, Facebook, and Instagram. While we use these networks to connect with our future and current customers, there are also social networks that allow you to chat with other like-minded business professionals.

While LinkedIn may be the leader in social networking for professionals, there are a variety of other networks that allow for community and networking in different ways. With existing networks and new networks, there are plenty to chose from that all fit your needs and wants in finding a community of professionals to network with.

Here are 20 social networking sites for entrepreneurs, business owners, freelancers, bloggers, and other professionals that are worth looking at and joining to help your networking and promoting efforts, along with learning from other professionals.

AngelList is a social network that connects startups with investors to help raise funding; also allows for browsing of jobs at startups.

AngelList

Beyond helps millions of professionals network with each other and find jobs to advance their careers.

Beyond

Black Business Women Online is a blog and online community for black women entrepreneurs and professionals.

Black Business Women Online

Data.com Connect is an online community to share ideas, get feedback, and discuss industry best practices.

Data.com Connect

E.Factor is an online community paired with a virtual marketplace designed for entrepreneurs by other entrepreneurs.

E.Factor

Gadball is a LinkedIn alternative that features profile and resume creation and job searching.

Gadball

Gust connects startups with a large pool of investors across the world to help raise early-stage funding.

Gust

LinkedIn is a professional network that allows you to be introduced to and collaborate with other professionals.

LinkedIn

Meetup is a networking website for finding like-minded groups and meetup opportunities locally.

Meetup

Networking for Professionals is a business network that combines online business networking and real-life events.

Networking for Professionals

Opportunity is a business network built around a lead generation tool that connects you to other professionals who could bring you leads, sales, and clients.

Opportunity

PartnerUp is a Google+ community connecting small business owners and entrepreneurs.

PartnerUp

PerfectBusiness is a network of entrepreneurs, investors, and business experts who encourage entrepreneurship and mutual success.

PerfectBusiness

Plaxo is an enhanced address book tool for networking and staying in contact.

Plaxo

Quibb is a social network that connects professionals through the use of business news and informed commentary.

Quibb

Ryze is a business networking community that allows users to organize themselves by interest, location, and current and past employers.

Ryze

StartupNation is a community focused on the exchange of ideas between entrepreneurs and new and aspiring business owners.

StartupNation

Upspring is a social networking site for promotion and social networking.

Upspring

Viadeo offers social networking for professionals, mostly popular in France, but has members from around the world.

Viadeo

XING is a European business network with more than 7 million members.

XING

Do you have any other social networking sites for business that you use? Which one has worked the best for your business? Let us know in the comments.

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20 Social Networking Sites for Business Professionals ...

Abstract

Online social networking sites (SNSs) have gained increasing popularity in the last decade, with individuals engaging in SNSs to connect with others who share similar interests. The perceived need to be online may result in compulsive use of SNSs, which in extreme cases may result in symptoms and consequences traditionally associated with substance-related addictions. In order to present new insights into online social networking and addiction, in this paper, 10 lessons learned concerning online social networking sites and addiction based on the insights derived from recent empirical research will be presented. These are: (i) social networking and social media use are not the same; (ii) social networking is eclectic; (iii) social networking is a way of being; (iv) individuals can become addicted to using social networking sites; (v) Facebook addiction is only one example of SNS addiction; (vi) fear of missing out (FOMO) may be part of SNS addiction; (vii) smartphone addiction may be part of SNS addiction; (viii) nomophobia may be part of SNS addiction; (ix) there are sociodemographic differences in SNS addiction; and (x) there are methodological problems with research to date. These are discussed in turn. Recommendations for research and clinical applications are provided.

Keywords: social networking sites, addiction, social media, FOMO, nomophobia, smartphone addiction, microblogging, gaming, dating, recommendations

The history of social networking sites (SNSs) dates back to 1997, when the first SNS SixDegrees emerged as a result of the idea that individuals are linked via six degrees of separation [1], and is conceived as the small world problem in which society is viewed as becoming increasingly inter-connected [2]. In 2004, Facebook, was launched as an online community for students at Harvard University and has since become the worlds most popular SNS [3]. In 2016, there were 2.34 billion social network users worldwide [4]. In the same year, 22.9% of the world population used Facebook [5]. In 2015, the average social media user spent 1.7 h per day on social media in the USA and 1.5 h in the UK, with social media users in the Philippines having the highest daily use at 3.7 h [6]. This suggests social media use has become an important leisure activity for many, allowing individuals to connect with one another online irrespective of time and space limitations.

It is this kind of connecting or the self-perceived constant need to connect that has been viewed critically by media scholars. Following decades of researching technology-mediated and online behaviors, Turkle [7] claims overreliance on technology has led to an impoverishment of social skills, leaving individuals unable to engage in meaningful conversations because such skills are being sacrificed for constant connection, resulting in short-term attention and a decreased ability to retain information. Individuals have come to be described as alone together: always connected via technology, but in fact isolated [8]. The perceived need to be online may lead to compulsive use of SNSs, which in extreme cases may result in symptoms and consequences traditionally associated with substance-related addictions. Since the publication of the first ever literature review of the empirical studies concerning SNS addiction in 2011 [3], the research field has moved forward at an increasingly rapid pace. This hints at the scientific communitys increasing interest in problematic and potentially addictive social networking use. In order to present new insights into online social networking and addiction, in this paper, 10 lessons learned concerning online social networking sites and addiction based on the insights derived from recent empirical research will be presented. These are: (i) social networking and social media use are not the same; (ii) social networking is eclectic; (iii) social networking is a way of being; (iv) individuals can become addicted to using social networking sites; (v) Facebook addiction is only one example of SNS addiction; (vi) fear of missing out (FOMO) may be part of SNS addiction; (vii) smartphone addiction may be part of SNS addiction; (viii) nomophobia may be part of SNS addiction; (ix) there are sociodemographic differences in SNS addiction; and (x) there are methodological problems with research to date. These are discussed in turn.

Social networking and social media use have often been used interchangeably in the scientific literature. However, they are not the same. Social media refers to the web 2.0 capabilities of producing, sharing, and collaborating on content online (i.e., user-generated content, implying a social element). Accordingly, social media use includes a wide range of social applications, such as collaborative projects, weblogs, content communities, social networking sites, virtual game worlds, and virtual social worlds [9], each of which will be addressed below.

Collaborative projects can be shared and worked on jointly and simultaneously using cloud-based computing. Two different types can be distinguished: Wikis allow for creating, removing and modifying online content (e.g., Wikipedia). Social bookmarking applications, on the other hand, allow for numbers of people to accumulate and appraise websites (e.g., Delicious). Taken together, collaborative projects may produce a superior end result in comparison to individual projects [9], which can be linked to the concept of collective intelligence, whereby the intelligence in the group is greater than the sum of its parts [10].

Weblogs (or blogs) can also be considered social media. Blogs allow individuals to share personal online diaries and information (sometimes in the form of images and videos), which may or may not be commented upon by other internet users. Next, there are content communities and video-sharing sites (e.g., YouTube). Content may include videos, but also text (e.g., BookCrossing), photographs (e.g., Instagram), and PowerPoint presentations (e.g., Slideshare), and in most cases, there is no a need for individuals to have personal profiles, and if they do, these tend to include limited personal information. Virtual game worlds allow users to create an online alter ego in the form of an avatar and to play with other players in large gaming universes (and the next section covers gaming in more detail). Kaplan and Haenlein [9] differentiate these from virtual social worlds from virtual game worlds, whereby the former allow individuals to create online characters which live in an alternative virtual world that is similar to their real life environments on the one hand, but defies physical laws. Arguably the best example of these virtual social worlds is Second Life, populated by human-like avatars, who engage in activities users engage in on an everyday basis, such as furnishing houses, going shopping, and meeting friends.

Finally, there are social networking sites, which we have previously defined as virtual communities where users can create individual public profiles, interact with real-life friends, and meet other people based on shared interests ([3]; p. 3529). Social networking is particularly focused on connecting people, which does not apply to a number of the other social media applications outlined above. Engaging in social networking comprises a specific type of social media use, therefore they are not synonymous. Consequently, studies that have examined social media addiction and social networking addiction may also be using the terms interchangeably, suggesting nosological imprecision.

Despite social networking being one type of social media use (as outlined in the previous section), the behavior is inherently eclectic because it includes a variety of apps and services that can be engaged in. For instance, social networking can be the use of traditional social networking sites, such as Facebook. Facebook can be considered an egocentric SNS (rather than the previously more common virtual communities that focused on shared interests between members) because it allows individuals to represent themselves using individual profiles and wall posts. These can contain text and audiovisual content, whilst connecting to friends who often appear as real life friends and acquaintances given the main motivation of individuals to use SNSs such as Facebook is to maintain their connections [3].

In 2016, the most popular social networking site was Facebook with 1712 million active users [5]. Facebook has long established its supremacy in terms of active members, with membership numbers steadily increasing by 17%20% annually [11]. Facebook is a very active network. Every minute, 510,000 comments are posted; 293,000 statuses are updated; and 136,000 photos are uploaded, whilst the average user spends approximately 20 min daily on the site [11].

Over the past few years, new networks have emerged that have gradually risen in popularity, particularly amongst younger generations. Instagram was launched in 2010 as a picture sharing SNS, claiming to allow you to experience moments in your friends lives through pictures as they happen [12]. In 2016, Instagram had 500 m active users [5]. Snapchat was launched in 2011 [13] as an SNS that allows users to message and connect with others using a smartphone and to send texts, videos, and make calls. Snapchat is different from other networks in that it has an inherently ephemeral nature, whereby any messages are automatically deleted shortly after the receiver has viewed them, allowing an increased experience of perceived privacy and safety online [14]. However, teenagers are especially aware of the transitory nature of Snapchat messages and therefore take screenshots and keep them stored on their mobile phones or in the cloud, simply to have proof of conversations and visuals spread on this medium. The privacy advantage of the medium is thereby countered. Snapchat had 200 million users in 2016 [5]. In the same year, Snapchat was the most popular SNS among 1324 year-old adolescents and adults in the USA, with 72% of this group using them, followed by 68% Facebook users, and 66% Instagram users [15]. The popularity of Snapchatparticularly among young userssuggests the SNS landscape is changing in this particular demographic, with users being more aware of potential privacy risks, enjoying the lack of social pressure on Snapchat as well as the increased amount of control over who is viewing their ephemeral messages. However, it could also be the case that this may lead to the complete opposite by increasing the pressure to be online all the time because individuals risk missing the connecting thread in a continuing stream of messages within an online group. This may be especially the case in Snapchat groups/rooms created for adolescents in school or other contexts. This can lead to decreasing concentration during preparation tasks for school at home, and may lead to constant distraction because of the pressure to follow what is going on as well as the fear of missing out. From a business point of view, Snapchat has been particularly successful due to its novel impermanent approach to messaging, with Facebook founder Mark Zuckerberg offering $3 billion to buy the SNS, which has been declined by Evan Spiegel, Snapchats CEO and co-founder [13]. These facts suggest the world of traditional SNS is changing.

Social networking can be instant messaging. The most popular messaging services to date are WhatsApp and Facebook Messenger with 1000 million active users each [5]. WhatsApp is a mobile messaging site that allows users to connect to one another via messages and calls using their internet connection and mobile data (rather than minutes and texts on their phones), and was bought by Facebook in 2014 for $22 billion [16], leading to controversies about Facebooks data sharing practices (i.e., Whatsapp phone numbers being linked with Facebook profiles), resulting in the European Commission fining Facebook [17]. In addition to WhatsApp, Facebook owns their own messaging system, which is arguably the best example of the convergence between traditional SNS use and messaging, and which functions as an app on smartphones separate from the actual Facebook application.

Social networking can be microblogging. Microblogging is a form of more traditional blogging, which could be considered a personal online diary. Alternatively, microblogging can also be viewed as an amalgamation of blogging and messaging, in such a way that messages are short and intended to be shared with the writers audience (typically consisting of followers rather than friends found on Facebook and similar SNSs). A popular example of a microblogging site is Twitter, which allows 140 characters per Tweet only. In 2016, Twitter had 313 million active users [5], making it the most successful microblogging site to date. Twitter has become particularly used as political tool with examples including its important role in the Arab Spring anti-government protests [18], as well as extensive use by American President Donald Trump during and following his presidential campaign [19]. In addition to microblogging politics, research has also assessed the microblogging of health issues [20].

Social networking can be gaming. Gaming can arguably be considered an element of social networking if the gaming involves connecting with people (i.e., via playing together and communicating using game-inherent channels). It has been argued that large-scale internet-enabled games (i.e., Massively Multiplayer Role-Playing Games [MMORPGs]), such as the popular World of Warcraft, are inherently social games situated in enormous virtual worlds populated by thousands of gamers [21,22], providing gamers various channels of communication and interaction, and allowing for the building of relationships which may extend beyond the game worlds [23]. By their very nature, games such as MMORPGs are particularly good at simultaneously tapping into what is typically formulated as game/not game, social/instrumental, real/virtual. And this mix is exactly what is evocative and hooks many people. The innovations they produce there are a result of MMOGs as vibrant sites of culture [24]. Not only do these games offer the possibility of communication, but they provide a basis for strong bonds between individuals when they unite through shared activities and goals, and have been shown to facilitate and increase intimacy and relationship quality in couples [25] and online gamers [22,23]. In addition to inherently social MMORPGs, Facebook-enabled gamessuch as Farmville or Texas Hold Em Pokercan be subsumed under the social networking umbrella if they are being used in order to connect with others (rather than for solitary gaming purposes) [26,27].

Social networking can be online dating. Presently, there are many online dating websites available, which offer their members the opportunity to become part of virtual communities, and they have been especially designed to meet the members romantic and relationship-related needs and desires [28]. On these sites, individuals are encouraged to create individual public profiles, to interact and communicate with other members with the shared interest of finding a date and/or long-term relationships, therewith meeting the present authors definition of SNS. In that way, online dating sites can be considered social networking sites. However, these profiles are often semi-public, with access granted only to other members of these networks and/or subscribers to the said online dating services. According to the US think tank Pew Research Centers Internet Project [29], 38% of singles in the USA have made use of online dating sites or mobile dating applications. Moreover, nearly 60% of internet users think that online dating is a good way to meet people, and the percentage of individuals who have met their romantic partners online has seen a two-fold increase over the last years [29]. These data suggest online dating is becoming increasingly popular, contributing to the appeal of online social networking sites for many users across the generations. However, it can also be argued that online dating sites such as Tinder may be less a medium for long-term relationships, given that Tinder use can lead to sexual engagement. This suggests the uses and gratifications perspective underlying Tinder use points more in the direction of other motives, such as physical and sexual aspirations and needs, rather than purely romance.

Taken together, this section has argued that social networking activities can comprise a wide variety of usage motivations and needs, ranging from friendly connection over gaming to romantic endeavors, further strengthening SNS natural embeddedness in many aspects of the everyday life of users. From a social networking addiction perspective, this may be similar to the literature on Internet addiction which often delineates between addictions to specific applications on the Internet (e.g., gaming, gambling, shopping, sex) and more generalized Internet addiction (e.g., concerning problematic over-use of the Internet comprising many different applications) [30,31].

In the present day and age, individuals have come to live increasingly mediated lives. Nowadays, social networking does not necessarily refer to what we do, but who we are and how we relate to one another. Social networking can arguably be considered a way of being and relating, and this is supported by empirical research. A younger generation of scholars has grown up in a world that has been reliant on technology as integral part of their lives, making it impossible to imagine life without being connected. This has been referred to as an always on lifestyle: Its no longer about on or off really. Its about living in a world where being networked to people and information wherever and whenever you need it is just assumed [32]. This has two important implications. First, being on has become the status quo. Second, there appears to be an inherent understanding or requirement in todays technology-loving culture that one needs to engage in online social networking in order not to miss out, to stay up to date, and to connect. Boyd [32] herself refers to needing to go on a digital sabbatical in order not be on, to take a vacation from connecting, with the caveat that this means still engaging with social media, but deciding which messages to respond to.

In addition to this, teenagers particularly appear to have subscribed to the cultural norm of continual online networking. They create virtual spaces which serve their need to belong, as there appear to be increasingly limited options of analogous physical spaces due to parents safety concerns [33]. Being online is viewed as safer than roaming the streets and parents often assume using technology in the home is normal and healthy, as stated by a psychotherapist treating adolescents presenting with the problem of Internet addiction: Use of digital media is the culture of the household and kids are growing up that way more and more [34]. Interestingly, recent research has demonstrated that sharing information on social media increases life satisfaction and loneliness for younger adult users, whereas the opposite was true for older adult users [35], suggesting that social media use and social networking are used and perceived very differently across generations. This has implications for social networking addiction because the context of excessive social networking is critical in defining someone as an addict, and habitual use by teenagers might be pathologized using current screening instruments when in fact the activitywhile excessivedoes not result in significant detriment to the individuals life [36].

SNS use is also driven by a number of other motivations. From a uses and gratifications perspective, these include information seeking (i.e., searching for specific information using SNS), identity formation (i.e., as a means of presenting oneself online, often more favorably than offline) [37], and entertainment (i.e., for the purpose of experiencing fun and pleasure) [38]. In addition to this, there are the motivations such as voyeurism [39] and cyberstalking [40] that could have potentially detrimental impacts on individuals health and wellbeing as well as their relationships.

It has also been claimed that social networking meets basic human needs as initially described in Maslows hierarchy of needs [41]. According to this theory, social networking meets the needs of safety, association, estimation, and self-realization [42]. Safety needs are met by social networking being customizable with regards to privacy, allowing the users to control who to share information with. Associative needs are fulfilled through the connecting function of SNSs, allowing users to friend and follow like-minded individuals. The need to estimate is met by users being able to gather friends and likes, and compare oneself to others, and is therefore related to Maslows need of esteem. Finally, the need for self-realization, the highest attainable goal that only a small minority of individuals are able to achieve, can be reached by presenting oneself in a way one wants to present oneself, and by supporting friends on those SNSs who require help. Accordingly, social networking taps into very fundamental human needs by offering the possibilities of social support and self-expression [42]. This may offer an explanation for the popularity of and relatively high engagement with SNSs in todays society. However, the downside is that high engagement and being always on or engaged with technology has been considered problematic and potentially addictive in the past [43], but if being always on can be considered the status quo and most individuals are on most of the time, where does this leave problematic use or addiction? The next section considers this question.

There is a growing scientific evidence base to suggest excessive SNS use may lead to symptoms traditionally associated with substance-related addictions [3,44]. These symptoms have been described as salience, mood modification, tolerance, withdrawal, relapse, and conflict with regards to behavioral addictions [45], and have been validated in the context of the Internet addiction components model [46]. For a small minority of individuals, their use of social networking sites may become the single most important activity that they engage in, leading to a preoccupation with SNS use (salience). The activities on these sites are then being used in order to induce mood alterations, pleasurable feelings or a numbing effect (mood modification). Increased amounts of time and energy are required to be put into engaging with SNS activities in order to achieve the same feelings and state of mind that occurred in the initial phases of usage (tolerance). When SNS use is discontinued, addicted individuals will experience negative psychological and sometimes physiological symptoms (withdrawal), often leading to a reinstatement of the problematic behavior (relapse). Problems arise as a consequence of the engagement in the problematic behavior, leading to intrapsychic (conflicts within the individual often including a subjective loss of control) and interpersonal conflicts (i.e., problems with the immediate social environment including relationship problems and work and/or education being compromised).

Whilst referring to an addiction terminology in this paper, it needs to be noted that there is much controversy within the research field concerning both the possible overpathologising of everyday life [47,48] as well as the most appropriate term for the phenomenon. On the one hand, current behavioral addiction research tends to be correlational and confirmatory in nature and is often based on population studies rather than clinical samples in which psychological impairments are observed [47]. Additional methodological problems are outlined below (Section 2.10). On the other hand, in the present paper, the present authors do not discriminate between the label addiction, compulsion, problematic SNS use, or other similar labels used because these terms are being used interchangeably by authors in the field. Nevertheless, when referring to addiction, the present authors refer to the presence of the above stated criteria, as these appear to hold across both substance-related as well as behavioral addictions [45] and indicate the requirement of significant impairment and distress on behalf of the individual experiencing it in order to qualify for using clinical terminology [49], such as the addiction label.

The question then arises as what it is that individuals become addicted to. Is it the technology or is it more what the technology allows them to do? It has been argued previously [34,50] that the technology is but a medium or a tool that allows individuals to engage in particular behaviors, such as social networking and gaming, rather than being addictive per se. This view is supported by media scholars: To an outsider, wanting to be always-on may seem pathological. All too often its labelled an addiction. The assumption is that were addicted to the technology. The technology doesnt matter. Its all about the people and information [32]. Following this thinking, one could claim that it is not an addiction to the technology, but to connecting with people, and the good feelings that likes and positive comments of appreciation can produce. Given that connection is the key function of social networking sites as indicated above, it appears that social networking addiction may be considered an appropriate denomination of this potential mental health problem.

There are a numbers of models which offer explanations as to the development of SNS addiction [51]. According to the cognitive-behavioral model, excessive social networking is the consequence of maladaptive cognitions and is exacerbated through a number of external issues, resulting in addictive use. The social skill model suggests individuals use SNSs excessively as a consequence of low self-presentation skills and preference for online social interaction over face-to-face communication, resulting in addictive SNS use [51]. With respect to the socio-cognitive model, excessive social networking develops as a consequence of positive outcome expectations, Internet self-efficacy, and limited Internet self-regulation, leading to addictive SNS use [51]. It has furthermore been suggested that SNS use may become problematic when individuals use it in order to cope with everyday problems and stressors, including loneliness and depression [52]. Moreover, it has been contended that excessive SNS users find it difficult to communicate face-to-face, and social media use offers a variety of immediate rewards, such as self-efficacy and satisfaction, resulting in continued and increased use, with the consequence of exacerbating problems, including neglecting offline relationships, and problems in professional contexts. The resultant depressed moods are then dealt with by continued engagement in SNSs, leading to a vicious cycle of addiction [53]. Cross-cultural research including 10,930 adolescents from six European countries (Greece, Spain, Poland, the Netherlands, Romania, and Iceland) furthermore showed that using SNS for two or more hours a day was related to internalizing problems and decreased academic performance and activity [54]. In addition, a study using a sample of 920 secondary school students in China indicated neuroticism and extraversion predicted SNS addiction, clearly differentiating individuals who experience problems as a consequence of their excessive SNS use from those individuals who used games or the Internet in general excessively [55], further contributing to the contention that SNS addiction appears to be a behavioral problem separate from the more commonly researched gaming addiction. In a study using a relatively small representative sample of the Belgian population (n = 1000), results suggested 6.5% were using SNSs compulsively, with this group having lower scores on measures of emotional stability and agreeableness, conscientiousness, perceived control and self-esteem, and higher scores on loneliness and depressive feelings [56].

Over the past few years, research in the SNS addiction field has largely focused on a potential addiction to using Facebook specifically, rather than other SNSs (see e.g., [57,58,59,60,61,62,63,64,65]). However, recent research suggests individuals may develop addiction-related problems as a consequence of using other SNSs, such as Instagram [66]. It has been claimed that users may experience gratification through sharing photos on Instagram, similar to the gratification they experience when using Facebook, suggesting that the motivation to share photos can be explained by uses and gratifications theory [66,67]. This may also be the reason for why individuals have been found to be less likely to experience addiction-related symptoms when using Twitter in contrast to Instagram [66]. In addition to the gratification received through photo sharing, these websites also allow to explore new identities [68], which may be considered to contribute to gratification, as supported by previous research [69]. Research has also suggested that Instagram use in particular appears to be potentially addictive in young UK adults [66], offering further support for the contention that Facebook addiction is only one example of SNS addiction.

Other than the presence and possible addictive qualities of SNSs other than Facebook, it has been contended that the respective activities which take place on these websites need to be considered when studying addiction [70]. For instance, Facebook users can play games such as Farmville [36], gamble online [71], watch videos, share photos, update their profiles, and message their friends [3]. Other researchers have moved beyond the actual website use that is referred to in these types of addictions, and specifically focused on the main activities individuals engage in, referring to constructs such as e-communication addiction [72]. It has also been claimed the term Facebook addiction is already obsolete as there are different types of SNSs that can be engaged in and different activities that can take place on these SNSs [70]. Following this justified criticism, researchers who had previously studied Facebook addiction specifically [58] have now turned to studying SNS addiction more generally instead [73], demonstrating the changing definitional parameters of social networking in this evolving field of research.

Recent research [74,75] has suggested that high engagement in social networking is partially due to what has been named the fear of missing out (FOMO). FOMO is a pervasive apprehension that others might be having rewarding experiences from which one is absent [76]. Higher levels of FOMO have been associated with greater engagement with Facebook, lower general mood, lower wellbeing, and lower life satisfaction, mixed feelings when using social media, as well as inappropriate and dangerous SNS use (i.e., in university lectures, and or whilst driving) [76]. In addition to this, research [77] suggests that FOMO predicts problematic SNS use and is associated with social media addiction [78], as measured with a scale adapted from the Internet Addiction Test [79]. It has been debated whether FOMO is a specific construct, or simply a component of relational insecurity, as observed for example with the attachment dimension of preoccupation with relationships in research into problematic Internet use [80].

In one study using 5280 social media users from several Spanish-speaking Latin-American countries [74] it was found that FOMO predicts negative consequences of maladaptive SNS use. In addition, this study also found that the relationship between psychopathology (as operationalized by anxiety and depression symptoms and assessed via the Hospital Anxiety and Depression Scale) and negative consequences of SNS use were mediated by FOMO, emphasizing the importance of FOMO in the self-perceived consequences of high SNS engagement. Moreover, other research [75] using 506 UK Facebook users has found that FOMO mediates the relationship between high SNS use and decreased self-esteem. Research with psychotherapists working with clients seeking help for their Internet use-related behaviors also suggested that young clients fear the sort of relentlessness of on-going messaging (). But concurrently with that is an absolute terror of exclusion [34]. Taken together, these findings suggest FOMO may be a significant predictor or possible component of potential SNS addiction, a contention that requires further consideration in future research. Further work is needed into the origins of FOMO (both theoretically and empirically), as well as research into why do some SNS users are prone to FOMO and develop signs of addictions compared to those who do not.

Over the last decade, research assessing problematic and possibly addictive mobile phone use (including smartphones) has proliferated [81], suggesting some individuals may develop addiction-related problems as a consequence of their mobile phone use. Recent research has suggested problematic mobile phone use is a multi-faceted condition, with dependent use being one of four possible pathways, in addition to dangerous, prohibited, and financially problematic use [82]. According to the pathway model, an addictive pattern of mobile phone use is characterized by the use of specific applications, including calls, instant messaging, and the use of social networks. This suggests that rather than being an addictive medium per se, mobile technologies including smartphones and tablets are media that enable the engagement in potentially addictive activities, including SNS use. Put another way, it could be argued that mobile phone addicts are no more addicted to their phones than alcoholics are addicted to bottles.

Similarly, it has been argued previously that individuals do not become addicted to the Internet per se, but to the activities they engage in on the Internet, such as gaming [50] or SNS use [3]. With the advent and ubiquity of mobile technologies, this supposition is more pertinent than ever. Using social networking sites is a particularly popular activity on smartphones, with around 80% of social media used via mobile technologies [83]. For instance, approximately 75% of Facebook users access the SNS via their mobile phones [84]. Therefore, it can be suggested that smartphone addiction may be part of SNS addiction. Previous research [73] supported this supposition by specifically indicating that social networking is often engaged in via phones, which may contribute to its addictive potential. Accordingly, it is necessary to move towards nosological precision, for the benefit of both individuals seeking help in professional settings, as well as research that will aid developing effective treatment approaches for those in need.

Related to both FOMO and mobile phone addiction is the construct of nomophobia. Nomophobia has been defined as no mobile phone phobia, i.e., the fear of being without ones mobile phone [85]. Researchers have called for nomophobia to be included in the DSM-5, and the following criteria have been outlined to contribute to this problem constellation: regular and time-consuming use, feelings of anxiety when the phone is not available, ringxiety (i.e., repeatedly checking ones phone for messages, sometimes leading to phantom ring tones), constant availability, preference for mobile communication over face to face communication, and financial problems as a consequence of use [85]. Nomophobia is inherently related to a fear of not being able to engage in social connections, and a preference for online social interaction (which is the key usage motivation for SNSs [3]), and has been linked to problematic Internet use and negative consequences of technology use [86], further pointing to a strong association between nomophobia and SNS addiction symptoms.

Using mobile phones is understood as leading to alterations in everyday life habits and perceptions of reality, which can be associated with negative outcomes, such as impaired social interactions, social isolation, as well as both somatic and mental health problems, including anxiety, depression, and stress [85,87]. Accordingly, nomophobia can lead to using the mobile phone in an impulsive way [85], and may thus be a contributing factor to SNS addiction as it can facilitate and enhance the repeated use of social networking sites, forming habits that may increase the general vulnerability for the experience of addiction-related symptoms as a consequence of problematic SNS use.

Research suggests there are sociodemographic differences among those addicted to social networking. In terms of gender, psychotherapists treating technology-use related addictions suggest SNS addiction may be more common in female rather than male patients, and describe this difference based on usage motivations:

() girls dont play role-playing games primarily, but use social forums excessively, in order to experience social interaction with other girls and above all to feel understood in their very individual problem constellations, very different from boys, who want to experience narcissistic gratification via games. This means the girls want direct interaction. They want to feel understood. They want to be able to express themselves. () were getting girls with clinical pictures that are so pronounced that we have to admit them into inpatient treatment. () we have to develop strategies to specifically target girls much better because there appears a huge gap. Epidemiologically, they are a very important group, but were not getting them into consultation and treatment.

This quote highlights two important findings. First, in the age group of 1416 years, girls appear to show a higher prevalence of addictions to the Internet and SNSs, as found in a representative German sample [88], and second, teenage girls may be underrepresented in clinical samples. Moreover, another study on a representative sample demonstrated that the distribution of addiction criteria varies between genders and that extraversion is a personality trait differentiating between intensive and addictive use [89].

Cross-sectional research is less conclusive as regards the contribution of gender as a risk factor for SNS addiction. A higher prevalence of Facebook addiction was found in a sample of 423 females in Norway using the Facebook Addiction Scale [58]. Among Turkish teacher candidates, the trend was reversed, suggesting males were significantly more likely to be addicted to using Facebook [90] as assessed via an adapted version of Youngs Internet Addiction Test [79].

In other studies, no relationship between gender and addiction was found. For instance, using a version of Youngs Internet Addiction Test modified for SNS addiction in 277 young Chinese smartphone users, gender did not predict SNS addiction [91]. Similarly, another study assessing SNS dependence in 194 SNS users did not find a relationship between gender and SNS dependence [51]. In a study of 447 university students in Turkey, Facebook addiction was assessed using the Facebook Addiction Scale, but did not find a predictive relationship between gender and Facebook addiction [62].

Furthermore, the relationships between gender and SNS addiction may be further complicated by other variables. For instance, recent research by Oberst et al. [74] found that only for females, anxiety and depression symptoms significantly predicted negative consequences of SNS use. The researchers explained this difference by suggesting that anxiety and depression experience in girls may result in higher SNS usage, implicating cyclical relationships in that psychopathological symptom experience may exacerbate negative consequences due to SNS use, which may then negatively impact upon perceived anxiety and depression symptoms.

In terms of age, studies indicate that younger individuals may be more likely to develop problems as a consequence of their excessive engagement with online social networking sites [92]. Moreover, research suggests perceptions as to the extent of possible addiction appear to differ across generations. A recent study by [72] found that parents view their adolescents online communication as more addictive than the adolescents themselves perceive it to be. This suggests that younger generations significantly differ from older generations in how they use technology, what place it has in their lives, and how problematic they may experience their behaviors to be. It also suggests that external accounts (such as those from parents in the case of children and adolescents) may be useful for clinicians and researchers in assessing the extent of a possible problem as adolescents may not be aware of the potential negative consequences that may arise as a result of their excessive online communication use. Interestingly, research also found that mothers are more likely to view their adolescents behavior as potentially more addictive relative to fathers, whose perception tended to be that of online communication use being less of a problem [72]. Taken together, although there appear differences in SNS addiction with regards to sociodemographic characteristics of the samples studied, such as gender, future research is required in order to clearly indicate where these differences lie specifically, given that much of current research appears somewhat inconclusive.

Given that the research field is relatively young, studies investigating social networking site addiction unsurprisingly suffer from a number of methodological problems. Currently, there are few estimations of the prevalence of social networking addiction with most studies comprising small and unrepresentative samples [3]. As far as the authors are aware, only one study (in Hungary) has used a nationally representative sample. The study by Bnyai and colleagues [93] reported that 4.5% of 5961 adolescents (mean age 16 years old) were categorized as at-risk of social networking addiction using the Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale. However, most studies investigating social networking addiction use various assessment tools, different diagnostic criteria as well as varying cut-off points, making generalizations and study cross-comparisons difficult [53].

Studies have made use of several different psychometric scales and six of these are briefly described below. The Addictive Tendencies Scale (ATS) [94] is based on addiction theory and uses three items, salience, loss of control, and withdrawal, whilst viewing SNS addiction as dimensional construct. The Bergen Facebook Addiction Scale (BFAS) [58] is based on Griffiths [45] addiction components, using a polythetic scoring method (scoring 3 out of 4 on each criterion on a minimum of four of the six criteria) and has been shown to have good psychometric properties. The Bergen Social Media Addiction Scale is similar to the BFAS in that Facebook is replaced with Social Media [95]. The E-Communication Addiction Scale [72] includes 22 questions with four subscales scored on a five-point Likert scaleaddressing issues such as lack of self-control (cognitive), e-communication use in extraordinary places, worries, and control difficulty (behavioral)and it has been found to have a high internal consistency, measuring e-communication addiction across different severity levels, ranging from very low to very high.

The Facebook Dependence Questionnaire (FDQ) [96] uses eight items based on the Internet Addiction Scale [97], with the endorsement of five out of eight criteria signifying addiction to using Facebook. The Social Networking Addiction Scale (SNWAS) [51] is a five-item scale which uses Charlton and Danforths engagement vs. addiction questionnaire [98,99] as a basis, viewing SNS addiction as a dimensional construct. This is by no means an exhaustive list, but those assessment tools highlighted here simply demonstrate that the current social networking addiction scales are based on different theoretical frameworks and use various cut-offs, and this precludes researchers from making cross-study comparisons, and severely limits the reliability of current SNS epidemiological addiction research.

Taken together, the use of different conceptualizations, assessment instruments, and cut-off points decreases the reliability of prevalence estimates because it hampers comparisons across studies, and it also questions the construct validity of SNS addiction. Accordingly, researchers are advised to develop appropriate criteria that are clinically sensitive to identify individuals who present with SNS addiction specifically, whilst clinicians will benefit from a reliable and valid diagnosis in terms of treatment development and delivery.

In this paper, lessons learned from the recent empirical literature on social networking and addiction have been presented, following on from earlier work [3] when research investigating SNS addiction was in its infancy. The research presented suggests SNSs have become a way of being, with millions of people around the world regularly accessing SNSs using a variety of devices, including technologies on the go (i.e., tablets, smartphones), which appear to be particularly popular for using SNSs. The activity of social networking itself appears to be specifically eclectic and constantly changing, ranging from using traditional sites such as Facebook to more socially-based online gaming platforms and dating platforms, all allowing users to connect based on shared interests. Research has shown that there is a fine line between frequent non-problematic habitual use and problematic and possibly addictive use of SNSs, suggesting that users who experience symptoms and consequences traditionally associated with substance-related addictions (i.e., salience, mood modification, tolerance, withdrawal, relapse, and conflict) may be addicted to using SNSs. Research has also indicated that a fear of missing out (FOMO) may contribute to SNS addiction, because individuals who worry about being unable to connect to their networks may develop impulsive checking habits that over time may develop into an addiction. The same thing appears to hold true for mobile phone use and a fear of being without ones mobile phone (i.e., nomophobia), which may be viewed as a medium that enables the engagement in SNSs (rather than being addictive per se). Given that engaging in social networking is a key activity engaged in using mobile technologies, FOMO, nomophobia, and mobile phone addiction appear to be associated with SNS addiction, with possible implications for assessment and future research.

In addition to this, the lessons learned from current research suggest there are sociodemographic differences in SNS addiction. The lack of consistent findings regarding a relationship with gender may be due to different sampling techniques and various assessment instruments used, as well as the presence of extraneous variables that may contribute to the relationships found. All of these factors highlight possible methodological problems of current SNS addiction research (e.g., lack of cross-comparisons due to differences in sampling and classification, lack of control of confounding variables), which need to be addressed in future empirical research. In addition to this, research suggests younger generations may be more at risk for developing addictive symptoms as a consequence of their SNS use, whilst perceptions of SNS addiction appear to differ across generations. Younger individuals tend to view their SNS use as less problematic than their parents might, further contributing to the contention that SNS use has become a way of being and is contextual, which must be separated from the experience of actual psychopathological symptoms. The ultimate aim of research must be not to overpathologize everyday behaviors, but to carry out better quality research as this will help facilitate treatment efforts in order to provide support for those who may need it.

Based on the 10 lessons learned from recent SNS addiction research, the following recommendations are provided. First, researchers are recommended to consider including an assessment of FOMO and/or nomophobia in SNS addiction screening instruments because both constructs appear related to SNS addiction. Second, it is recommended that social networking site use is measured across different technologies with which it can be accessed, including mobile and smartphones. It is of fundamental importance to study what kinds of activities are being engaged in online (social networking, gaming, etc.), rather than the medium through which these activities are engaged in (i.e., desktop computer, tablet, mobile/smartphone). Third, risk factors associated with problematic social networking need to be assessed longitudinally to provide a clearer indication of developmental etiology, and to allow for the design of targeted prevention approaches. Fourth, clinical samples need to be included in research in order to ensure the sensitivity and specificity of the screening instruments developed. Fifth, in terms of treatment, unlike treating substance-related addictions, the main treatment goal should be control rather than abstinence. Arguably, abstinence cannot realistically be achieved in the context of SNS addiction because the Internet and social networking have become integral elements of our lives [3,8,33]. Rather than discontinuing social networking completely, therapy should focus on establishing controlled SNS use and media awareness [53].

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Social Networking Sites and Addiction: Ten Lessons Learned ...