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NCERT Solutions for Class 9 Social Science: History – Chapter 2 Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution –

Check NCERT Solutions for Class 9 Social Science (History - Chapter 2 Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution) based on the latest CBSE Class 9th Social Science Syllabus 2020-21. These solutions are very helpful for the preparation of the Class 9th SST exam 2020-21.

Question 1. What were the social, economic and political conditions in Russia before 1905?

Answer 1.

Social Conditions:

About 85% of Russia's population was into agriculture. Workers were a divided social group. Some had strong links with the villages from which they came. Others had settled in cities permanently.

Workers were divided by skill. Despite divisions, workers did unite to strike work (stop work) when they disagreed with employers about dismissals or work conditions. These strikes took place frequently in the textile industry during 1896-1897, and in the metal industry during 1902.

In the countryside, peasants cultivated most of the land. But the nobility, the crown and the Orthodox Church owned large properties. Like workers, peasants too were divided. They were also deeply religious. But except in a few cases they had no respect for the nobility.

Economic Conditions:

The vast majority of people in Russia were agriculturists. About 85 percent of the Russian empire s population earned their living from agriculture cultivators produced for the market as well as for their own needs and Russia was a major exporter of grain.

The industry was found in pockets. Prominent industrial areas were St Petersburg and Moscow. Craftsmen undertook much of the production, but large factories existed alongside craft workshops.

Many factories were set up in the 1890s when Russias railway network was extended, and foreign investment in industry increased. Coal production doubled and iron and steel output quadrupled.

In Russia, peasants wanted the land of the nobles to be given to them. Frequently, they refused to pay rent and even murdered landlords. In 1902, this occurred on a large scale in south Russia. And in 1905, such incidents took place all over Russia.

Political Condition:

Socialists were active in the countryside through the late nineteenth century. They formed the Socialist Revolutionary Party in 1900. This party struggled for peasant's rights and demanded that land belonging to nobles be transferred to peasants.

Social Democrats disagreed with Socialist Revolutionaries about peasants. Lenin felt that peasants were not one united group. Some were poor and others rich, some worked as labourers while others were capitalists who employed workers.

Given this differentiation within them, they could not all be part of a socialist movement. The party was divided over the strategy of the organisation. Vladimir

Lenin (who led the Bolshevik group) thought that in a repressive society like Tsarist Russia the party should be disciplined and should control the number and quality of its members.

Russia was an autocracy. Tsar was not subject to parliament. Liberals in Russia campaigned to end this state of affairs.

Together with the Social Democrats and Socialist Revolutionaries, they worked with peasants and workers during the revolution of 1905 to demand a constitution.

One day over 110,000 workers in St Petersburg went on strike demanding a reduction in the working day to eight hours, an increase in wages

and improvement in working conditions.

When the procession of workers led by Father Gapon reached the Winter Palace it was attacked by the police and the Cossacks. Over 100 workers were killed and about 300 wounded.

The incident, known as Bloody Sunday, started a series of events that became known as the 1905 Revolution.

NCERT Solutions for Class 9 Social Science: History - Chapter 1 The French Revolution

Question 2. In what ways was the working population in Russia different from other countries in Europe, before 1917?

Answer 2.

About 85 percent of the Russian empire's population earned their living from agriculture. This proportion was higher than in most European countries.

For instance, in France and Germany, the proportion was between 40 per cent and 50 per cent.

In the empire, cultivators produced for the market as well as for their own needs and Russia was a major exporter of grain.

Russian peasants were different from other European peasants in another way. They pooled their land together periodically and their commune (mir) divided it according to the needs of individual families.

Question 3. Why did the Tsarist autocracy collapse in 1917?

Answer 3.

In 1914, war broke out between two European alliances - Germany, Austria and Turkey (the Central powers) and France, Britain and Russia (later Italy and Romania). This was the First World War.

In Russia, the war was initially popular and people rallied around Tsar Nicholas II. As the war continued, though, the Tsar refused to consult the main parties in the Duma. Support wore thin.

Anti-German sentiments ran high, as can be seen in the renaming of St Petersburg - a German name- as Petrograd.

The Tsarina Alexandra's German origins and poor advisers, especially a monk called Rasputin, made the autocracy unpopular.

The First World War on the 'eastern front' differed from that on the 'western front'. In the west, armies fought from trenches stretched along eastern France. In the east, armies moved a good deal and fought battles leaving large casualties. Defeats were shocking and demoralising.

Russia's armies lost badly in Germany and Austria between 1914 and 1916. There were over 7 million casualties by 1917.

As they retreated, the Russian army destroyed crops and buildings to prevent the enemy from being able to live off the land. The destruction of crops and buildings led to over 3 million refugees in Russia. The situation discredited the government and the Tsar. Soldiers did not wish to fight such a war.

The war also had a severe impact on the industry. Russia's own industries were few in number and the country was cut off from other suppliers of industrial goods by German control of the Baltic Sea.

Industrial equipment disintegrated more rapidly in Russia than elsewhere in Europe. By 1916, railway lines began to break down. Able-bodied men were called up to the war. As a result, there were labour shortages and small workshops producing essentials were shut down.

Large supplies of grain were sent to feed the army. For the people in the cities, bread and flour became scarce. By the winter of 1916, riots at bread shops were common. In February 1917, the government suspended the Duma.

Military commanders advised Tsar to abdicate. He followed their advice and abdicated on 2 March.

Question 4. Make two lists: one with the main events and the effects of the February Revolution and the other with the main events and effects of the October Revolution. Write a paragraph on who was involved in each, who were the leaders and what was the impact of each on Soviet history.

Answer 4.

February Revolution:

In February 1917, food shortages were deeply felt in the workers quarters. The winter was very cold & there had been an exceptional frost and heavy snow. Parliamentarians wishing to preserve the elected government were opposed to the Tsar's desire to dissolve the Duma.

On 22 February, a lockout took place at a factory on the right bank. The next day, workers in fifty factories called a strike in sympathy.

In many factories, women led the way to strikes. This came to be called the International Women's Day.

On Sunday, 25 February, the government suspended the Duma. Politicians spoke out against the measure.

Demonstrators returned in force to the streets of the left bank on the 26th. On the 27th, the Police Headquarters were ransacked. The

streets thronged with people raising slogans about bread, wages, better hours and democracy.

The government tried to control the situation and called out the cavalry once again. However, the cavalry refused to fire on the demonstrators

An officer was shot at the barracks of a regiment and three other regiments mutinied, voting to join the striking workers. By that evening, soldiers and striking workers had gathered to form a 'soviet' or 'council' in the same building as the Duma met. This was the Petrograd Soviet.

The very next day, a delegation went to see the Tsar.

Military commanders advised him to abdicate. He followed their advice and abdicated on 2 March. Soviet leaders and Duma leaders formed a Provisional Government to run the country. Russias future would be decided by a constituent assembly, elected based on universal adult suffrage. Petrograd had led the February Revolution that brought down the monarchy in February 1917.

In April 1917, the Bolshevik leader Vladimir Lenin returned to Russia from his exile. He and the Bolsheviks had opposed the war since 1914.

He declared that the war be brought to a close, land be transferred to the peasants, and banks be nationalised. These three demands were Lenin's 'April Theses'.

Popular demonstrations staged by the Bolsheviks July 1917 were sternly repressed.

Meanwhile, in the countryside, peasants and their Socialist Revolutionary leaders pressed for a redistribution of land.

Land committees were formed to handle this. Encouraged by the Socialist Revolutionaries, peasants seized land between July and September 1917.

October Revolution:

On 16 October 1917, Lenin persuaded the Petrograd Soviet and

the Bolshevik Party to agree to a socialist seizure of power. A

Military Revolutionary Committee was appointed by the Soviet

under Leon Trotskii to organise the seizure. The date of the event

was kept a secret.

The uprising began on 24 October. Sensing trouble, Prime Minister

Kerenskii had left the city to summon troops. At dawn, military men loyal to the government seized the buildings of two Bolshevik newspapers. Pro-government troops were sent to take over telephone

and telegraph offices and protect the Winter Palace.

In a swift response, the Military Revolutionary Committee ordered its supporters to seize government offices and arrest ministers.

Late in the day, the ship Aurora shelled the Winter Palace. Other vessels

sailed down the Neva and took over various military points. By nightfall, the city was under the committee's control and the ministers had surrendered.

At a meeting of the All Russian Congress of Soviets in Petrograd, the majority approved the Bolshevik action.

Uprisings took place in other cities. There was heavy fighting - especially in Moscow - but by December, the Bolsheviks controlled the Moscow-Petrograd area. The Bolsheviks were opposed to private property.

Most industry and banks were nationalised in November 1917.

The land was declared social property and peasants were allowed to seize the land of the nobility The Bolshevik Party was renamed the Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik).

In November 1917, the Bolsheviks conducted the elections to the Constituent Assembly, but they failed to gain majority support.

In January 1918, the Assembly rejected Bolshevik measures and Lenin dismissed the Assembly. He thought the All Russian Congress of Soviets was more democratic than an assembly elected in uncertain conditions.

In March 1918, despite opposition by their political allies, the Bolsheviks made peace with Germany at Brest Litovsk.

Question 5. What were the main changes brought about by the Bolsheviks immediately after the October Revolution?

Answer 5.

The main changes were:

Most industry and banks were nationalised in November 1917.

The land was declared social property and peasants were allowed to seize the land of the nobility.

In cities, Bolsheviks enforced the partition of large houses according to family requirements.

They banned the use of the old titles of the aristocracy.

New uniforms were designed for the army and officials.

The Bolshevik Party was renamed the Russian Communist Party (Bolshevik)

In November 1917, the Bolsheviks conducted the elections to the Constituent Assembly, but they failed to gain majority support.

In January 1918, the Assembly rejected Bolshevik measures and Lenin dismissed the Assembly

In March 1918, despite opposition by their political allies, the Bolsheviks made peace with Germany at Brest Litovsk.

The Bolsheviks became the only party to participate in the elections to the All Russian Congress of Soviets, which became the Parliament of the country.

Russia became a one-party state. Trade unions were kept under party control.

Question 6. Write a few lines to show what you know about:

kulaks

the Duma

women workers between 1900 and 1930

the Liberals

Stalins collectivisation programme.

Continued here:
NCERT Solutions for Class 9 Social Science: History - Chapter 2 Socialism in Europe and the Russian Revolution -

Talk of the County: A vote for Biden is a vote for socialism, and the country sinking to new lows as it did d – Chicago Tribune

So, there have been a number of examples where corporate executives take a pay cut in this crisis. President Trump donates all of his salary to various government agencies. But Governor Pie Face wont take a pay cut to help out the State of Illinois, even though he is the Hyatt Hotel baby. Didnt see him volunteering any hotel rooms for COVID-19 patients. As a Democrat, all he can do is raise your taxes -- income, sales, fuel, registration fees, real estate taxes, and now he wants to raise income taxes again. When someone bought an electric car to help the environment, he found a way to tax that with a $1,000 fee because it did not use gasoline. You voters are morons for electing him. Pie Face and Madigan will never decrease the state budget with the funds from these taxes, and Democrats will just keep taking for more of your money.

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Talk of the County: A vote for Biden is a vote for socialism, and the country sinking to new lows as it did d - Chicago Tribune

What Is Socialist Realism? | by Sophie Pinkham – The New York Review of Books

Deineka/Samokhvalov

an exhibition at the Manege Central Exhibition Hall, St. Petersburg, November 18, 2019January 19, 2020

In Aleksandr Deinekas painting Textile Workers (1927), three barefoot young women in simple shifts work in a light-filled blue-gray space, the rows of bobbins rendered as floating lozenges along the walls. The girl in the foreground, a skinny teenager, pulls a thread from a bobbin that seems to hang in the air. She faces us, but is unaware of our presence: we have the advantage, as if looking through a two-way mirror. On the right side of the canvas, another woman walks pensively into white nothingness. Deineka, one of the Soviet Unions most successful artists, said the painting was intended to celebrate the rhythms of the factory, but today it looks more like a glimpse into an alternate universe: the early Soviet project, with its vertiginous hopes for a new world.

At the exhibit Deineka/Samokhvalov, on view this winter at St. Petersburgs Manege Central Exhibition Hall, Textile Workers hung in a dim room, the painting lit so that it seemed to glow from within. The factory workers looked like ghosts from a future that never happened. But as presented at the Manege, the painting also evoked something intensely contemporary: a cell phone screen, luminous with color, solitary, easy to like. The dim lighting wasnt helpful if you wanted to scrutinize Deinekas technique, but it made the painting look great on Instagram. Welcome to a new Russian aesthetic: socialist realism curated for social media.

The exhibition, a centerpiece of the eighth St. Petersburg International Cultural Forum, was imagined as a soccer match between two major Soviet painters from rival cities: Deineka, who lived in Moscow, and his Leningrad contemporary Aleksandr Samokhvalov, who is far less famous but more than held his own. The pale neoclassical faade of the Manegewhich was the tsars riding hall and then the garage of the NKVD, the Peoples Commissariat for Internal Affairswas adorned with colored banners announcing the competition: Deineka (number 99, for his birth year of 1899) vs. Samokhvalov (born 1894 and thus number 94), Moscow vs. Leningrad. Arriving at the exhibition, you entered a stand of bleachers from which you could watch clips of Soviet athletes in slow motion, with atmospheric music piped in throughout the gallery. At the end of the show you emerged onto half an AstroTurf soccer field, complete with a Deineka sculpture of soccer players. The elderly female attendants familiar from every Russian museum no longer wore their customary fringed floral scarves and fuzzy sweaters; instead, they were dressed in Deineka or Samokhvalov soccer jerseys and American sneakers. It was gimmicky but cute, and it successfully conveyed the idea that the exhibition wasnt a dry academic exercise but a popular event. Nearly a century on, socialist realism can finally be fun.

Both Deineka and Samokhvalov were precocious, politically committed, self-made artists: in other words, perfect poster boys for the Soviet art industry that emerged after the revolution. Deineka was born in Kursk, the son of a railway worker, while Samokhvalov was the child of a small-time tradesman in the town of Bezhetsk, in Tver Oblast. In 1908, at the tender age of fourteen, Samokhvalov was expelled from school for revolutionary activities. In 1914 he moved to St. Petersburg. After the revolution he studied under the painter Kuzma Petrov-Vodkin, who was known for his use of spherical perspectivea painters version of a fish-eye lensand for his interest in Renaissance and old Russian frescoes, an enthusiasm that he passed on to his gifted pupil.

Deineka turned eighteen in 1917, coming of age with the revolution. A year later he was in charge of Kursks department of fine arts. Mobilized into the Red Army in 1919, he made designs for propaganda posters and agit-trains, the propaganda vehicles that rolled through the country spreading the Soviet word. In 1921 he moved to Moscow, where he enrolled in the Higher Arts and Technical Studios, which was established in 1920 by Lenins decree and would soon become a hotbed of the Soviet avant-garde.

The 1920s brought heated debates about the kind of art (and literature, music, theater, and dance) that best embodied Soviet values. The avant-garde had blossomed in the years before the revolution, in the work of Kazimir Malevich, Wassily Kandinsky, Natalya Goncharova, Marc Chagall, and many others. Some of these artists emigrated after the revolution, but many remained, fighting for the idea that a new society demanded new artistic forms. At first it seemed that the avant-garde, with its iconoclastic disdain for everything it deemed bourgeois and old-fashioned, might win out. But not everyone agreed that the avant-garde was capable of capturing the attention of the masses and conveying socialist messages across the USSR. The Association of Artists of Revolutionary Russia rejected all forms of modernism, calling for a return to the realist pictorial style of the nineteenth-century Russian classics. Both Deineka and Samokhvalov fell somewhere in the middle (though closer to the avant-garde), seeking to combine modernist techniquescubism, off-kilter composition, flattened perspective, collage- and montage-like effectswith explicitly socialist content, while preserving some of the old methods, such as easel painting.1 In an era of acute artistic factionalism, the two drifted among different groups even as their careers gained momentum.

The Central Committee dissolved all independent artistic groups in 1932, replacing them with official trade unions. Socialist realism, a slippery genre purporting to depict the Soviet world in its revolutionary developmentas it ought to be rather than as it actually wasbecame the official genre of the USSR. The socialist part mattered more than the realism. A work passed muster if it was deemed an adequate expression of Soviet values, however they were being defined at a particular momentand the definitions changed frequently. The more prestigious or well connected the artist, the more he or she was likely to get away with. Formalism, which was understood as a preference for form over political content, became a term of abuse, liable to be lobbed at even remotely abstract works. Movements like Constructivism were sidelined or eliminated. But modernist techniques remained visible in official Soviet art, notably in the work of Deineka and Samokhvalov, figurative painters deeply marked by avant-garde movements.

The careers of both artists peaked in the late 1920s and the 1930s. To be an official artist under Stalin meant many constraints and the constant risk of denunciation, banishment, or worse. But it also meant many benefits, such as special access to housing and medical care, government commissions, paid research trips within the Soviet Union, and even travel abroad. A central state commissioning agency made contracts with artists, dispensing a monthly stipend in exchange for a certain number of works over a set period; the subject matter was not specified. The state placed the artists works in museums and institutions. As long as you werent pegged as a class enemy, and provided you had strong nerves, you could live well as an official Soviet artist.

Deineka was particularly successful; he was granted many prestigious commissions and allowed the extraordinary privilege of traveling around the worldeven to the United States in 1934, for a well-received traveling exhibition called The Art of Soviet Russia. The art historian Christina Kiaer, the leading English-language expert on Deineka, argues that the show succeeded in the US because, for both strategic and contingent reasons, selections skewed toward work that was less overtly political than run-of-the-mill socialist realism. American critics expressed their pleasant surprise that the Soviet works they saw were not simple propaganda. Singling out Deineka for special praise, The New York Timess art critic wrote, We cannot but conclude that the workrepresents the spirit of a people released; of a people free, at length, to warm itself at the hearth of human peace and comradeship and simple, spontaneous happiness. Fortune magazine exclaimed, in no man more than Deyneka does the Russian painters kinship with the American appear.

The shows figurative leanings went over well in a country where the art of the period was more figurative and less abstract than that in Western Europe. The subject matter was agreeably familiar: one visitor reportedly remarked approvingly that a painting of railroad yards might have been painted by a unit of the Engineers Club of Baltimore. Vanity Fair commissioned Deineka to travel to Lake Placid, where he drew a ski-jump scene that became a cover for the magazine.2 (The cover and Lake Placid sketches were shown at the Manege.)

Deineka was praised in Western Europe as well. While his work was not nearly ideological enough for some of his more zealous colleagues at home, Europeans understood and admired his muted modernism and relatively subtle political content. In 1934 Matisse called Deineka the most talented and the most advanced of all the young Soviet artists. His work was shown around Europe and sold for precious foreign currency. Rivals soon accused him again of formalismincluding in The Defense of Petrograd (1928), which had already become a Soviet classicbut he managed to shake off the attacks. He dodged the purges that took down many of his fellow artists and even his first wife, the artist Pavla Freiburg, who died soon after her arrest.

Deineka/Samokhvalov made it clear that both artists did their share of straightforward propaganda, though they did it with style. Deinekas most famous poster, Work, Build, and Dont Whine (1933), which depicts a woman twisting as she prepares to throw a discus, shows his preoccupation with the body in motion. Samokhvalov painted a beautiful bronze hammer and sickle atop a bronze CCCP (the Cyrillic letters for USSR) on a blood-red background, as well as an elaborately detailed visual representation of Marxist theory, with cartoons illustrating each stage of socialism, from hunter-gatherers worshipping stone idols to Vladimir Tatlins spiraling, never-constructed Monument to the Third International. Samokhvalov built his career on portraits of workers, often women who looked like Viking goddesses of industrialization. His famous series Builders of the Metro (1934), based on his observation of the construction of the Moscow metro system, shows hugely strong, determined women doing things like drilling into rock, exerting the full force of their bountifully muscular frames. But much of Deineka and Samokhvalovs work is too fantastical to feel didactic.

In 1935 Stalin declared that life has become better, comrades, life has become more joyous since the first stage of industrialization and collectivization had been completed. In keeping with this newly decreed mood, Samokhvalovs Soviet Physical Culture (1935) depicts a candy-colored Valhalla for Soviet athletes and aviators. A girl waves from atop a huge ball adorned with the letters CCCP; a nearly naked man holds up a bikini-clad woman who seems to be imitating the toy-like planes above her as a woman pilot rushes forward to cheer her on. Faint white parachutes float through the sky, as if aviators are being dropped like confetti over the celebrants. Its a blissful, childlike, and utterly unreal vision, especially considering that it was painted in the midst of famine and mass arrests.

The version of Soviet Physical Culture on view at the Manege was a sketch for a panel in the USSRs pavilion at the 1937 World Exhibition in Paris. Samokhvalovs panel won a Grand Prix, and his painting Girl in a Soccer Jersey, depicting a Soviet Madonna in black-and-white stripes, won a gold medal. (At the Manege, the painting, probably his most famous, was surrounded by smaller studies for the canvas, creating a vaguely Warholian effect; the spotlights gave the display the air of a secular altar.) Deinekas panel for the Soviet pavilion depicted shock workersheroes of labor who succeeded in greatly exceeding their production targetsmarching happily forward. The Soviet pavilion faced the German one, which had been designed by Albert Speer, and the Soviets were happy to emerge with more prizes and medals than their German rivals.3 The exhibition was a triumph, a successful display of Soviet cultural achievements in the international arena.

Even before Stalins pronouncement about the increase in jubilation, critics had praised Deineka for his joyful renderings of the new person. Today his new Soviet people dont look particularly happy. Instead, they have an intriguingly enigmatic quality. Theyre slightly wooden, rough-hewn, and their eyes are a little blank, as if they have not yet been fully animated by their creator. The viewer is spared the ruddy, routinized cheer of the lower echelons of socialist realist painting. As Kiaer argues, Deineka shows people who are midway through a process of becoming a new kind of socialist being.

He has a similarly idiosyncratic approach to Soviet collectives: his Collective Farm Worker on a Bicycle (1935) shows a woman cycling alone through a green, idyllic landscape. Theres no work and no collective, only a happy ride on a bicycle, a rare luxury during that period. Socialist realist portraits of impossible abundance and harmony, grinning workers feasting on the fruits of the land, were cruelly at odds with real life in the Soviet 1930s. Deinekas cycling fantasy is not much more realistic, but it is vastly less bombastic and less prescriptive. One womans reverie on the empty road, in the empty landscape, stands for the unanswered question of what socialism and collectivization will bringand perhaps what it will mean for individual identity and consciousness.4 This openness and ambiguity, in contrast with the monotonous confidence of lesser works of socialist realism, is what makes Deinekas work feel alive today, long after the Soviet experiment has met its bitter end.

The Manege exhibition was organized by theme: sports and work, war and peace, heroes and children. But these were only a few of the possible thematic permutations. One could, for example, have paired sports and war. Take Samokhvalovs Militarized Komsomol (19311933), which shows earnest boys and girls practicing with their rifles, their sharp-planed faces shining in warm sunlight. One girl wears a black-and-white-striped soccer jersey with a bubblegum-pink skirt. They look like theyre having fun; war is still a game.

Sometimes the juxtaposition was the product of historical contingency rather than artistic intention. In Deinekas The Shower. After the Fight, the viewer is just behind the shapely back of a naked man whos watching six of his cheery, equally shapely comrades taking showers. The painting was based on a photo of boxers (Deineka was an avid boxer and gym rat), but by the time it was exhibited in 1943, the word fight had come to signify something much more serious. Deineka had often depicted athletes defying gravity, leaping from ski jumps or hurling themselves toward the finish line. Now he made paintings like Fallen Ace (1943), which showed a pilot plunging headfirst from the sky. It shows the same lack of concern about mechanics evident in many of Deinekas sports paintings. The pilots torso seems to have swiveled 180 degrees at the waist, but he appears oddly relaxed: his arm is bent behind his head as if hes napping on a couch. His body looks as if it has been superimposed on the bleak, bombed-out landscape, like a collage. Transcendent athleticism had been replaced by the incomprehensibility of violent death.

The purges and professional attacks of the late 1930s had taken a toll on Deinekas reputation, though hed avoided arrest or blacklisting. The war allowed him to regain his former status. He remained in Moscow, sketched troops in action, drew military propaganda posters, and produced the large-scale The Defense of Sevastopol (1942) in record time. It became his most famous painting, though it is far from his best. (The canvas wasnt included in Deineka/Samokhvalov; when I visited it in the nearby Russian Museum, it was surrounded by schoolchildren.) He went to Berlin in 1945 and made paintings of the ruins that are notable for their eerie absence of people, particularly striking for an artist so preoccupied with the human body. But the renewed conservatism of the postwar years brought Deineka under attack for formalism yet again, and he had to rely on teaching jobs to support himself. He had a happy last hurrah during Khrushchevs Thaw, when his work became a memento of Soviet dreams of the happy new man, functioning as a state-sanctioned, safer alternative to European art. A 1956 Picasso exhibition in Moscow had been so successful that authorities feared that Western modern art was winning the hearts of Soviet citizens. When Deineka was granted a large Soviet exhibition the following year, his modernism was widely praised, apparently as part of a coordinated effort to reappropriate the label. When Deineka died in 1969, his reputation was secure. Samokhvalov spent the war years as a set designer for a theater troupe that performed at the front; he was decorated after the war, and remained in the states good graces until his death in 1971.

On the last days of Deineka/Samokhvalov in January, lines stretched around the block. Nearly thirty years after the dissolution of the Soviet Union, official Soviet painting holds a fresh interest, especially for viewers who were too young to experience it the first time around. You can still find Soviet dissenters who express a visceral loathing for art that they perceive as the effluvia of totalitarianismbut their ranks shrink every year, and they arent on Instagram.

Meanwhile, theres an ever-growing number of social media accounts devoted to Soviet culture, notably Soviet Visuals, which posts images of art, ephemera, and everyday life. The account began as the hobby of Varvara Bortsova, a young Russian ex-ballerina, but it soon became so popular that she made it a full-time job. Soviet Visuals is motivated by curiosity about the distant days of the Soviet Union, how it looked and sounded and tasted. The project has become an easily accessible archive of the Soviet everyday that reminds us that, despite the hardships and injustices Soviet citizens endured, they also laughed, ate ice cream, liked dressing up and dancing, and generally led varied and complex lives. The project is a much needed antidote to lingering cold war clichs that make the USSR sound like nothing more than one big Gulag. Soviet Visuals gift shop, which sells T-shirts, pillows, and other merchandise bearing Soviet designs, capitalizes on the perverse thrill of transforming Soviet culture into consumerist kitsch.

On the more serious side, there is burgeoning interest in official Soviet culture among younger academics, both Russian and foreign. By engaging seriously with socialist realism and related genres rather than dismissing them as propaganda, these scholars have produced some of the most interesting recent work in Soviet studies. New examination of nondissident culture sheds light on the elaborate process of negotiation that characterized Soviet artistic life, giving us a far more complex understanding of the period and reviving the reputations of some artists who, like Deineka and Samokhvalov, managed to produce valuable work while successfully navigating the shoals of Soviet doctrine.

Official Soviet painting has also drawn the attention of collectors and museums. The devoutly Russian Orthodox banking billionaire Aleksei Ananiev collected about six thousand works of socialist realism, even founding a museum in Moscow, the Institute of Russian Realist Art, to house them. (Ananiev fled Russia in 2017, accused of embezzlement; the artworks were subsequently arrested and the museum closed.) Sothebys showed pieces from Ananievs collection in a 2013 exhibition on sports in Soviet art, which included work by Deineka. Three years earlier, it had sold a socialist realist painting for a record $1.5 million. During Russian Art Week in 2017 at London auction houses, Deineka was the undisputed star: both MacDougalls and Sothebys were offering his works for about 3 million. MacDougalls managed to sell its pastel-tinted study for a panel at the 1937 Paris International Exhibition, while Sothebys grimmer Coal Miner, a piece of a larger painting, didnt find a buyer. Deineka, who spent his entire career working within the Soviet system of government commissions, stipends, and censorship, has entered the free market at last.

I visited Deineka/Samokhvalov at the winter solstice, when the sky was still midnight blue at 10 AM and strings of lights sparkled like icicles above the Neva River. St. Petersburg is a museum city, begging for a period drama to be filmed among its meringue palaces and curving canals, in the gilded fin-de-sicle shops and cafs of Nevsky Prospekt. In recent years, a new kind of period piece has popped up on its streets, as elsewhere in the former USSR: restaurants and cafs that evoke an idealized memory of a Soviet apartment or cafeteria. The Soviet epoch has become the object of cozy, amused nostalgia. To some extent, an Instagrammable exhibition of Deineka and Samokhvalov is a higher-brow expression of this tendency.

Is there something more sinister at play? In a perceptive review of Deineka/Samokhvalov on the Russian website Colta, the art historian Nadia Plungian remarked that government representatives and their rich and powerful guests had been invited to the opening of the exhibition, but art historians and critics had not. This, she wrote, prompted some observers to wonder whether Soviet art had again become a gift wrap for current government ideology, even if it has little in common with that of the Soviets.5 This approach would be consistent with the cultural tactics of the Russian government under Putin: create a reassuring sense of continuity by embracing the Soviet Unions greatest cultural and historical hits, claiming the power and accomplishments of the Soviet Union (and also the Russian Empire) while papering over blatant ideological contradictions. But the work of Deineka and Samokhvalov, having already transcended socialist realist pablum, is strange and strong enough to survive a new generation of politicians.

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What Is Socialist Realism? | by Sophie Pinkham - The New York Review of Books

Rasputin in the White House – World Socialist Web Site

25 April 2020

Since the outbreak of the coronavirus pandemic, the world has grown accustomed to the daily White House press briefings, in which a scowling Donald Trump parades his staggering ignorance and promotes quackery, as medical experts contradict his harebrained and antiscientific justifications for a rapid return to work.

But even these daily spectacles could not have prepared audiences for Trumps performance Thursday, when the president urged Americans to inject themselves with disinfectant and insert ultraviolet lights into their bodies, measures which would kill those unfortunate enough to listen to the presidents advice.

I see the disinfectant that knocks it out in a minute, one minute, Trump said. And is there a way we can do something like that by injection inside, or almost a cleaning? Because you see it gets inside the lungs and it does a tremendous number on the lungs, so it would be interesting to check that.

Trump continued: So supposing we hit the body with a tremendouswhether its ultraviolet or just a very powerful lightand I think you said that hasnt been checked because of the testing. And then I said, supposing you brought the light inside the body, which you can do either through the skin or some other way, and I think you said youre going to test that, too.

These statements provoked a flurry of denunciations by astounded medical professionals. The maker of Lysol disinfectant was forced to publicly rebuke the president by issuing a statement saying, We must be clear that under no circumstances should our disinfectant products be administered into the human body.

In recent weeks, Trump has pronounced that his gut instinct told him the pandemic would be over in April, that it was no worse than the flu, and that the medication hydroxychloroquineproduced by a friend who stood to profit from the presidents recommendationcould cure the virus, despite Food and Drug Administration warnings that it would lead to increased deaths.

It is easy enough to point out that these statements express Trumps own stunning backwardness and callous indifference to human life.

But what remains to be explained is: How did this grotesque sociopath come to occupy the White House, and what does his sordid presidency reveal about the state of the American political system?

A characteristic of a doomed political system, often observed in history, is the elevation of an especially despicable and even depraved personality to a high position in the state, frequently as a key adviser to the ruler. Such individuals often become the focus of public outrage.

Among the most notorious examples of such a personality in the twentieth century was Grigori Rasputin, the mad monk, who exerted immense influence over the Russian Tsar Nicholas II and the Empress Alexandra. A horse thief and rapist, Rasputin became the trusted and indispensable adviser of the royal couple, partly on the basis of his claim that he could treat their hemophiliac son through a combination of religious incantations, the conjuring of spirits and his own frightening stare. The Tsar and Tsarina took no major decisions without consulting their corrupt and dissolute friend.

Fearful that the influence wielded by Rasputin was leading the regime to disaster, a group of disgruntled nobles carried out the friends gruesome assassination in December 1916. Their action failed to stave off the revolution, which began two months later.

Rasputinism entered into the vocabulary of politics as a word that denotes an obscene level of state corruption and decadence. In his History of the Russian Revolution, Leon Trotsky recalled that this bizarre episode, in the final years of the crisis-ridden Russian autocracy, acquired the character of a disgusting nightmare overhanging the country.

Trotsky continued: If by the word hooliganism we understand the extreme expression of those antisocial parasite elements at the bottom of society, we may define Rasputinism as a crowned hooliganism at its very top.

A century after the original version, a form of Rasputinism has emerged in the United States. But the American Rasputin is not the adviser to the president. He is the presidenta vile scoundrel and social degenerate, incapable of formulating a coherent sentence, let alone a logical argumentpositioned at the apex of the American state!

Trump epitomizes an oligarchy whose wealth is based on a level of parasitism that is hardly to be distinguished from criminality. His thuggishness, cultural backwardness and contempt for the common people embody the attitudes and practices of the swarms of banksters, billionaire investors, vulture capitalists, hedge fund managers, asset strippers, real estate swindlers and media moguls who run both political parties and all three branches of government.

The US presently finds itself in the midst of a crisis of unparalleled dimensions, with the government in the hands of a person who is telling the population to inject bleach into its veins.

In the period of its historic rise, the American bourgeoisie could produce Abraham Lincoln, who embodied the democratic ethos of the American Revolution and stewarded the country through the Civil War. In the next great crisisthe Great DepressionFranklin Delano Roosevelt was capable of speaking seriously about social issuesas FDR did in his fireside chatsand appealing to the democratic sentiments of the broad masses of people.

Today, decades of US economic decline have eliminated any basis within the ruling class for the defense of the countrys democratic traditions. American capitalism finds its quintessential expression in the persona of Trump. That does not mean that all American capitalists like what they see. But looking into the mirror is not always a pleasant experience. In the final analysis, Trump is their man. They must take him as he is.

Truth be told, what use would Wall Street have for a man of science and high culture in the White House? The interests of the banks and corporations are not served by a scientifically informed approach to the pandemic. The factories must be reopened. Profit must be squeezed out of the working class. Monthly mortgages, rents and interest payments are due and must be met. Dr. Anthony Fauci and his fellow epidemiologists, with their endless jeremiads on the danger posed by the current and a second wave of the pandemic, are getting on the nerves of corporate America.

Within 24 hours of Trumps statement on injecting disinfectant and using ultraviolet light inside the body, the fifty thousandth person died of the virus in the US. As several states rushed back to work, April 23 almost set a record for new positive cases nationwide. The United Nations is preparing for famines that threaten to take the lives of hundreds of millions in Africa, Asia and Latin America.

Though Trump says it more bluntly than his counterparts in Europe and across the world, the US president is expressing the viewpoint of the entire global ruling elite.

In Germany, Angela Merkel is opening the country by sending the working class back to their jobs, indifferent to evidence that this will lead to a new wave of deaths. The same is true in Spain, Britain, France and elsewhere. In Latin America, the position of the ruling class is summed up in the response of Brazils right-wing Jair Bolsonaro and Mexicos ostensibly left-wing Andrs Manuel Lpez Obrador, both of whom have claimed that God will protect their respective populations from the virus.

If society were directed rationally and democratically, on the basis of socialist policies, a globally planned and scientifically guided mass intervention could conquer the pandemic and save millions of lives. The pandemic is a biological reality, but the response to this phenomenon is conditioned by the class interests that dominate society. The lethality of the pandemic is determined less by the RNA of the virus than by the economic and social priorities of the capitalist class.

In the final analysis, the fight against the pandemic is inextricably bound up with the fight for the transfer of power to the working class and the establishment of socialism.

Eric London and David North

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Rasputin in the White House - World Socialist Web Site

History of the socialist movement in the United States …

Socialism in the United States began with utopian communities in the early 19th century such as the Shakers, the activist visionary Josiah Warren and intentional communities inspired by Charles Fourier. Labor activists, usually British, German, or Jewish immigrants, founded the Socialist Labor Party in 1877. The Socialist Party of America was established in 1901. By that time, anarchism also established itself around the country while socialists of different tendencies were involved in early American labor organizations and struggles which reached a high point in the Haymarket affair in Chicago which started International Workers' Day as the main workers holiday around the world (Labor Day in the United States is celebrated on the first Monday of September) and making the eight-hour day a worldwide objective by workers organizations and socialist parties worldwide.[1]

Under Socialist Party of America presidential candidate Eugene V. Debs, socialist opposition to World War I led to the governmental repression collectively known as the First Red Scare. The Socialist Party declined in the 1920s, but nonetheless often ran Norman Thomas for President. In the 1930s, the Communist Party USA took importance in labor and racial struggles while it suffered a split which converged in the Trotskyist Socialist Workers Party. In the 1950s, socialism was affected by McCarthyism and in the 1960s it was revived by the general radicalization brought by the New Left and other social struggles and revolts. In the 1960s, Michael Harrington and other socialists were called to assist the Kennedy administration and then the Johnson administration's War on Poverty and Great Society[2] while socialists also played important roles in the civil rights movement.[3][4][5][6]

Socialism in the United States has been composed of many tendencies, often in important disagreements with each other as it has included utopian socialists, social democrats, democratic socialists, communists, Trotskyists and anarchists. The socialist movement in the United States has historically been relatively weak. Unlike socialist parties in Europe, Canada and Oceania, a major social democratic party has not yet materialized in the United States[7] and the socialist movement remains marginal, "almost unique in its powerlessness among the Western democracies".[8] In the United States, socialism "brings considerable stigma, in large part for its association with authoritarian communist regimes".[9] Writing for The Economist, Samuel Jackson argued that in the United States the word socialism has been used as a pejorative term without clear definition by conservatives[10] and libertarians to taint liberal and progressive policies, proposals and public figures.[11] Nonetheless, a 2013 article in The Guardian stated: "Contrary to popular belief, Americans don't have an innate allergy to socialism". It noted that Milwaukee has had several socialist mayors such as Emil Seidel, Daniel Hoan and Frank Zeidler whilst Socialist Party presidential candidate Eugene V. Debs won nearly one million votes in the 1920 presidential election.[12][13] Self-declared democratic socialist Bernie Sanders won 13 million votes in the 2016 Democratic Party presidential primary, gaining considerable popular support, particularly among the younger generation and the working class.[14][15][16]

Utopian socialism was the first American socialist movement. Utopians attempted to develop model socialist societies to demonstrate the virtues of their brand of beliefs. Most utopian socialist ideas originated in Europe, but the United States was most often the site for the experiments themselves. Many utopian experiments occurred in the 19th century as part of this movement, including Brook Farm, the New Harmony, the Shakers, the Amana Colonies, the Oneida Community, The Icarians, Bishop Hill Commune, Aurora, Oregon and Bethel, Missouri.

Robert Owen, a wealthy Welsh industrialist, turned to social reform and socialism and in 1825 founded a communitarian colony called New Harmony in southwestern Indiana. The group fell apart in 1829, mostly due to conflict between utopian ideologues and non-ideological pioneers. In 1841, transcendentalist utopians founded Brook Farm, a community based on Frenchman Charles Fourier's brand of socialism. Nathaniel Hawthorne was a member of this short-lived community, and Ralph Waldo Emerson had declined invitations to join. The group had trouble reaching financial stability and many members left as their leader George Ripley turned more and more to Fourier's doctrine. All hope for its survival was lost when the expensive, Fourier-inspired main building burnt down while under construction. The community dissolved in 1847.

Fourierists also attempted to establish a community in Monmouth County, New Jersey. The North American Phalanx community built a PhalanstreFourier's concept of a communal-living structureout of two farmhouses and an addition that linked the two. The community lasted from 1844 to 1856, when a fire destroyed the community's flour and saw-mills and several workshops. The community had already begun to decline after an ideological schism in 1853. French socialist tienne Cabet, frustrated in Europe, sought to use his Icarian movement to replace capitalist production with workers cooperatives. He became the most popular socialist advocate of his day, with a special appeal to English artisans were being undercut by factories. In the 1840s, Cabet led groups of emigrants to found utopian communities in Texas and Illinois. However, his work was undercut by his many feuds with his own followers.[17]

Utopian socialism reached the national level fictionally in Edward Bellamy's 1888 novel Looking Backward, a utopian depiction of a socialist United States in the year 2000. The book sold millions of copies and became one of the best-selling American books of the nineteenth century. By one estimation, only Uncle Tom's Cabin surpassed it in sales.[18] The book sparked a following of Bellamy Clubs and influenced socialist and labor leaders, including Eugene V. Debs.[19] Likewise, Upton Sinclair's masterpiece The Jungle was first published in the socialist newspaper Appeal to Reason, criticized capitalism as being oppressive and exploitative to meatpacking workers in the industrial food system. The book is still widely referred to today as one of the most influential works of literature in modern history.

Josiah Warren is widely regarded as the first American anarchist[20] and the four-page weekly paper he edited during 1833, The Peaceful Revolutionist, was the first anarchist periodical published.[21] Warren, a follower of Robert Owen, joined Owen's community at New Harmony, Indiana. He coined the phrase "Cost the limit of price", with "cost" here referring not to monetary price paid but the labor one exerted to produce an item.[22] Therefore, "[h]e proposed a system to pay people with certificates indicating how many hours of work they did. They could exchange the notes at local time stores for goods that took the same amount of time to produce".[20] He put his theories to the test by establishing an experimental "labor for labor store" called the Cincinnati Time Store where trade was facilitated by notes backed by a promise to perform labor. The store proved successful and operated for three years, after which it was closed so that Warren could pursue establishing colonies based on mutualism. These included "Utopia" and "Modern Times". Warren said that Stephen Pearl Andrews' The Science of Society, published in 1852, was the most lucid and complete exposition of Warren's own theories.[23] For American anarchist historian Eunice Minette Schuster: "It is apparent... that Proudhonian Anarchism was to be found in the United States at least as early as 1848 and that it was not conscious of its affinity to the Individualist Anarchism of Josiah Warren and Stephen Pearl Andrews... William B. Greene presented this Proudhonian Mutualism in its purest and most systematic form".[24]

American anarchist Benjamin Tucker wrote in Individual Liberty:

The economic principles of Modern Socialism are a logical deduction from the principle laid down by Adam Smith in the early chapters of his Wealth of Nations,namely, that labor is the true measure of price. ... Half a century or more after Smith enunciated the principle above stated, Socialism picked it up where he had dropped it, and in following it to its logical conclusions, made it the basis of a new economic philosophy ... This seems to have been done independently by three different men, of three different nationalities, in three different languages: Josiah Warren, an American; Pierre J. Proudhon, a Frenchman; Karl Marx, a German Jew ... That the work of this interesting trio should have been done so nearly simultaneously would seem to indicate that Socialism was in the air, and that the time was ripe and the conditions favorable for the appearance of this new school of thought. So far as priority of time is concerned, the credit seems to belong to Warren, the American,a fact which should be noted by the stump orators who are so fond of declaiming against Socialism as an imported article.[25]

German Marxist immigrants who arrived in the United States after the 1848 revolutions in Europe brought socialist ideas with them.[26] Joseph Weydemeyer, a German colleague of Karl Marx who sought refuge in New York in 1851 following the 1848 revolutions, established the first Marxist journal in the United States, Die Revolution, but It folded after two issues. In 1852, he established the Proletarierbund, which would become the American Workers' League, the first Marxist organization in the United States, but it too proved short-lived, having failed to attract a native English-speaking membership.[27] In 1866, William H. Sylvis formed the National Labor Union (NLU). Frederich Albert Sorge, a German who had found refuge in New York following the 1848 revolutions, took Local No. 5 of the NLU into the First International as Section One in the United States. By 1872, there were 22 sections, which held a convention in New York. The General Council of the International moved to New York with Sorge as General Secretary, but following internal conflict it dissolved in 1876.[28]

A larger wave of German immigrants followed in the 1870s and 1880s, including social democratic followers of Ferdinand Lasalle. Lasalle regarded state aid through political action as the road to revolution and opposed trade unionism, which he saw as futile, believing that according to the iron law of wages employers would only pay subsistence wages. The Lasalleans formed the Social Democratic Party of North America in 1874 and both Marxists and Lasalleans formed the Workingmen's Party of the United States in 1876. When the Lasalleans gained control in 1877, they changed the name to the Socialist Labor Party of America (SLP). However, many socialists abandoned political action altogether and moved to trade unionism. Two former socialists, Adolph Strasser and Samuel Gompers, formed the American Federation of Labor (AFL) in 1886.[26]

The Socialist Labor Party (SLP) was officially founded in 1876 at a convention in Newark, New Jersey. The party was made up overwhelmingly of German immigrants, who had brought Marxist ideals with them to North America. So strong was the heritage that the official party language was German for the first three years. In its nascent years, the party encompassed a broad range of various socialist philosophies, with differing concepts of how to achieve their goals. Nevertheless, there was a militiathe Lehr und Wehr Vereinaffiliated to the party. When the SLP reorganised as a Marxist party in 1890, its philosophy solidified and its influence quickly grew and by around the start of the 20th century the SLP was the foremost American socialist party.

Bringing to light the resemblance of the American party's politics to those of Lassalle, Daniel De Leon emerged as an early leader of the Socialist Labor Party. He also adamantly supported unions, but criticized the collective bargaining movement within the United States at the time, favoring a slightly different approach.[a] The resulting disagreement between De Leon's supporters and detractors within the party led to an early schism. De Leon's opponents, led by Morris Hillquit, left the Socialist Labor Party in 1901 as they fused with Eugene V. Debs's Social Democratic Party and formed the Socialist Party of America.

As a leader within the socialist movement, Debs' movement quickly gained national recognition as a charismatic orator. He was often inflammatory and controversial, but also strikingly modest and inspiring. He once said: "I am not a Labor Leader; I do not want you to follow me or anyone else. [...] You must use your heads as well as your hands, and get yourself out of your present condition". Debs lent a great and powerful air to the revolution with his speaking: "There was almost a religious fervor to the movement, as in the eloquence of Debs".[29]

The Socialist movement became coherent and energized under Debs. It included "scores of former Populists, militant miners, and blacklisted railroad workers, who were ... inspired by occasional visits from national figures like Eugene V. Debs".[30]

The first socialist to hold public office in the United States was Fred C. Haack, the owner of a shoe store in Sheboygan, Wisconsin. Haack was elected to the city council in 1897 as a member of the Populist Party, but soon became a socialist following the organization of Social Democrats in Sheboygan. He was re-elected alderman in 1898 on the Socialist ticket, along with August L. Mohr, a local baseball manager. Haack served on the city council for sixteen years, advocating for the building of schools and public ownership of utilities. He was recognized as the first socialist officeholder in the United States at the 1932 national Socialist Party convention held in Milwaukee.[31][32]

One of the first general strikes in the United States, the 1877 St. Louis general strike grew out of the Great Railroad Strike of 1877. The general strike was largely organized by the Knights of Labor and the Marxist-leaning Workingmen's Party, the main radical political party of the era. When the railroad strike reached East St. Louis, Illinois in July 1877, the St. Louis Workingman's Party led a group of approximately 500 people across the river in an act of solidarity with the nearly 1,000 workers on strike.[33]

The Socialist Party formed strong alliances with a number of labor organizations because of their similar goals. In an attempt to rebel against the abuses of corporations, workers had found a solutionor so they thoughtin a technique of collective bargaining. By banding together into "unions" and by refusing to work, or "striking", workers would halt production at a plant or in a mine, forcing management to meet their demands. From Daniel De Leon's early proposal to organize unions with a socialist purpose, the two movements became closely tied. They shared as one major ideal the spirit of collectivismboth in the socialist platform and in the idea of collective bargaining.

The most prominent American unions of the time included the American Federation of Labor, the Knights of Labor and the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW). In 1869, Uriah S. Stephens founded the Noble and Holy Order of the Knights of Labor, employing secrecy and fostering a semireligious aura to "create a sense of solidarity".[34] The Knights comprised in essence "one big union of all workers".[35] In 1886, a convention of delegates from twenty separate unions formed the American Federation of Labor, with Samuel Gompers as its head. It peaked[when?] at 4 million members. In 1905, the IWW (or "Wobblies") formed along the same lines as the Knights to become one big union. The IWW found early supporters in De Leon and in Debs.

The socialist movement was able to gain strength from its ties to labor. "The [economic] panic of 1907, as well as the growing strength of the Socialists, Wobblies, and trade unions, speeded up the process of reform".[36] However, corporations sought to protect their profits and took steps against unions and strikers. They hired strikebreakers and pressured government to call in the state militias when workers refused to do their jobs. A number of strikes collapsed into violent confrontations.

In May 1886, the Knights of Labor were demonstrating in the Haymarket Square in Chicago, demanding an eight-hour day in all trades. When police arrived, an unknown person threw a bomb into the crowd, killing one person and injuring several others. "In a trial marked by prejudice and hysteria", a court sentenced seven anarchists, six of them German-speaking, to deathwith no evidence linking them to the bomb.[37]

Strikes also took place that same month (May 1886) in other cities, including in Milwaukee, where seven people died when Wisconsin Governor Jeremiah M. Rusk ordered state militia troops to fire upon thousands of striking workers who had marched to the Milwaukee Iron Works Rolling Mill in Bay View on Milwaukee's south side.

In early 1894, a dispute broke out between George Pullman and his employees. Debs, then leader of the American Railway Union, organized a strike. United States Attorney General Olney and President Grover Cleveland took the matter to court and were granted several injunctions preventing railroad workers from "interfering with interstate commerce and the mails".[38] The judiciary of the time denied the legitimacy of strikers. Said one judge, "[neither] the weapon of the insurrectionist, nor the inflamed tongue of him who incites fire and sword is the instrument to bring about reforms".[38] This was the first sign of a clash between the government and socialist ideals.

In 1914, one of the most bitter labor conflicts in American history took place at a mining colony in Colorado called Ludlow. After workers went on strike in September 1913 with grievances ranging from requests for an eight-hour day to allegations of subjugation, Colorado governor Elias Ammons called in the National Guard in October 1913. That winter, Guardsmen made 172 arrests.[b][39]

The strikers began to fight back, killing four mine guards and firing into a separate camp where strikebreakers lived. When the body of a strikebreaker was found nearby, the National Guard's General Chase ordered the tent colony destroyed in retaliation.[39]

"On Monday morning, April 20, two dynamite bombs were exploded, in the hills above Ludlow ... a signal for operations to begin. At 9am a machine gun began firing into the tents [where strikers were living], and then others joined",[39] one eyewitness reported as "[t]he soldiers and mine guards tried to kill everybody; anything they saw move".[39] That night, the National Guard rode down from the hills surrounding Ludlow and set fire to the tents. Twenty-six people, including two women and eleven children, were killed.[40]

Union members now feared to strike. The military, which saw strikers as dangerous insurgents, intimidated and threatened them. These attitudes compounded with a public backlash against anarchists and radicals. As public opinion of strikes and of unions soured, the socialists often appeared guilty by association. They were lumped together[by whom?] with strikers and anarchists under a blanket of public distrust.

The American anarchist Benjamin Tucker (18541939) focused on economics, advocating "Anarchistic-Socialism"[41] and adhering to the mutualist economics of Pierre-Joseph Proudhon and Josiah Warren while publishing his eclectic influential publication Liberty. Lysander Spooner (18081887), besides his individualist anarchist activism, was also an important anti-slavery activist and became a member of the First International.[42] Two individualist anarchists who wrote in Benjamin Tucker's Liberty were also important labor organizers of the time. Joseph Labadie was an American labor organizer, individualist anarchist, social activist, printer, publisher, essayist and poet. Without the oppression of the state, Labadie believed, humans would choose to harmonize with "the great natural laws ... without robbing [their] fellows through interest, profit, rent and taxes". However, he supported community cooperation as he supported community control of water utilities, streets and railroads.[43] Although he did not support the militant anarchism of the Haymarket anarchists, he fought for clemency for the accused because he did not believe they were the perpetrators. In 1888, Labadie organized the Michigan Federation of Labor, became its first president and forged an alliance with Samuel Gompers.[43] Dyer Lum was a 19th-century American individualist anarchist labor activist and poet.[44] A leading anarcho-syndicalist and a prominent left-wing intellectual of the 1880s,[45] he is remembered[by whom?] as the lover and mentor of early anarcha-feminist Voltairine de Cleyre.[46] Lum wrote prolifically, producing a number of key anarchist texts and contributed to publications including Mother Earth, Twentieth Century, Liberty (Tucker's individualist anarchist journal), The Alarm (the journal of the International Working People's Association) and The Open Court among others. He developed a "mutualist" theory of unions and as such was active within the Knights of Labor and later promoted anti-political strategies in the American Federation of Labor. Frustration with abolitionism, spiritualism and labor reform caused Lum to embrace anarchism and to radicalize workers, as he came to believe that revolution would inevitably involve a violent struggle between the working class and the employing class.[46] Convinced of the necessity of violence to enact social change, he volunteered to fight in the American Civil War of 18611865, hoping thereby to bring about the end of slavery.[46]

By the 1880s, anarcho-communism had reached the United States as can be seen in the publication of the journal Freedom: A Revolutionary Anarchist-Communist Monthly by Lucy Parsons and Lizzy Holmes.[47] Parsons debated in her time in the United States with fellow anarcha-communist Emma Goldman over issues of free love and feminism.[47] Another anarcho-communist journal, The Firebrand, later appeared in the United States. Most anarchist publications in the United States were in Yiddish, German, or Russian, but Free Society was published in English, permitting the dissemination of anarchist communist thought to English-speaking populations in the United States.[48] Around that time,[when?] these American anarcho-communist sectors entered into debate with the individualist anarchist faction led by Tucker.[49] In February 1888, Berkman left his native Russia for the United States.[50] Soon after his arrival in New York City, Berkman became an anarchist through his involvement with groups that had formed to campaign to free the men convicted of the 1886 Haymarket bombing.[51] Berkman and Goldman soon came under the influence of Johann Most, the best-known anarchist in the United States and an advocate of propaganda of the deedattentat, or violence carried out to encourage the masses to revolt.[52][53][54] Berkman became a typesetter for Most's newspaper Freiheit.[51]

Victor L. Berger ran for Congress and lost in 1904 before winning Wisconsin's 5th congressional district seat in 1910 as the first Socialist to serve in the Congress. In Congress, he focused on issues related to the District of Columbia and also more radical proposals, including eliminating the President's veto, abolishing the Senate[55] and the socialization of major industries. Berger gained national publicity for his old-age pension bill, the first of its kind introduced into Congress. Less than two weeks after the Titanic passenger ship disaster of 1912, Berger introduced a bill in Congress providing for the nationalization of radio-wireless systems. A practical socialist, Berger argued that the wireless chaos which occurred during the Titanic disaster had demonstrated the need for a government-owned wireless system.[56] Outside of Congress, socialists were able to influence a number of progressive reforms (both directly and indirectly) on a local level.[57]

Socialists met harsh political opposition when they opposed American entry into World War I (1914-1918) and tried to interfere with the conscription laws that required all younger men to register for the draft. On April 7, 1917, the day after Congress declared war on Germany, an emergency convention of the Socialist Party took place in St. Louis. It declared the war "a crime against the people of the United States"[58] and began holding anti-war rallies. Socialist anti-draft demonstrations drew as many as 20,000 people.[59] In June 1917, President Woodrow Wilson signed into law the Espionage Act,[60] which included a clause providing prison sentences for up to twenty years for "[w]hoever, when the United States is at war, shall willfully cause or attempt to cause insubordination, disloyalty, mutiny, or refusal of duty ... or willfully obstruct the recruiting or enlistment of service of the United States".[59] With their talk of draft-dodging and war-opposition, the socialists found themselves the target of federal prosecutors as scores were convicted and jailed. Archibald E. Stevenson, a New York attorney with ties to the Justice Department, probably as a "volunteer spy",[61] testified on January 22, 1919 during the German phase of the subcommittee's work. He established that anti-war and anti-draft activism during World War I, which he described as "pro-German" activity, had now transformed itself into propaganda "developing sympathy for the Bolshevik movement".[62] The United States' wartime enemy, though defeated, had exported an ideology that now ruled Russia and threatened the United States anew: "The Bolsheviki movement is a branch of the revolutionary socialism of Germany. It had its origin in the philosophy of Marx and its leaders were Germans".[63]

After visiting three socialists imprisoned in Canton, Ohio, Eugene V. Debs crossed the street and made a two-hour speech to a crowd in which he condemned the war. "Wars throughout history have been waged for conquest and plunder. [...] The master class has always declared the war and the subject class has always fought the battles", Debs told the crowd.[64] He was immediately arrested and soon convicted under the Espionage Act. During his trial, he did not take the stand, nor call a witness in his defense. However, before the trial began and after his sentencing, he made speeches to the jury: "I have been accused of obstructing the war. I admit it. Gentlemen, I abhor war. [...] I have sympathy with the suffering, struggling people everywhere ...". He also uttered what would become his most famous words: "While there is a lower class, I am in it; while there is a criminal element, I am of it; while there is a soul in prison, I am not free". Debs was sentenced to ten years in prison and served 32 months until President Warren G. Harding pardoned him.

During the war, about half the socialists supported the war, most famously Walter Lippmann. The other half were under attack for obstructing the draft and the Courts held they went beyond the bounds of free speech when they encouraged young men to break the law and not register for the draft. Howard Zinn, historian on the left, says: "The patriotic fervor of war [was] invoked. The courts and jails [were] used to reinforce the idea that certain ideas, certain kinds of resistance, could not be tolerated".[65] The government crackdown on dissenting radicalism paralleled public outrage towards opponents of the war. Several groups were formed on the local and national levels to stop the socialists from undermining the draft laws. The American Vigilante Patrol, a subdivision of the American Defense Society, was formed with the purpose "to put an end to seditious street oratory".[66] The American Protective League was a new private group that kept track of cases of "disloyalty". It eventually claimed it had found 3,000,000 such cases:[66] "Even if these figures are exaggerated, the very size and scope of the League gives a clue to the amount of 'disloyalty'".[66]

The press was also instrumental in spreading feelings of hatred against dissenters:

In April of 1917, the New York Times quoted (former Secretary of War) Elihu Root as saying: 'We must have no criticism now.' A few months later it quoted him again that 'there are men walking about the streets of this city tonight who ought to be taken out at sunrise tomorrow and shot for treason'. [...] The Minneapolis Journal carried an appeal by the [Minnesota Commission of Public Safety] 'for all patriots to join in the suppression of anti-draft and seditious acts and sentiment'.[66]

Meanwhile, corporations pressured the government to deal with strikes and other disruptions from disgruntled workers. The government felt especially pressured to keep war-related industries running: "As worker discontent and strikes [...] intensified in the summer of 1917, demands grew for prompt federal action. [...] The anti-labor forces concentrated their venom on the IWW".[67] Soon, "the halls of Congress rang with denunciations of the IWW" and the government sided with industry as "federal attorneys viewed strikes not as the behavior of discontented workers but as the outcome of subversive and even German influences".[67]

On September 5, 1917, at the request of President Wilson the Justice Department conducted a raid on the IWW. They stormed every one of the 48 IWW headquarters in the country as "[b]y month's end, a federal grand jury had indicted nearly two hundred IWW leaders on charges of sedition and espionage" under the Espionage Act.[68] Their sentences ranged from a few months to ten years in prison. An ally of the Socialist Party had been practically destroyed. However, Wilson did recognize a problem with the state of labor in the United States. In 1918, working closely with Samuel Gompers of the AFL, he created the National War Labor Board in an attempt to reform labor practices. The Board included an equal number of members from labor and business and included leaders of the AFL. The War Labor Board was able to "institute the eight-hour day in many industries, [...] to raise wages for transit workers [...] [and] to demand equal pay for women [...]".[69] It also required employers to bargain collectively, effectively making unions legal.

On January 21, 1919, 35,000 shipyard workers in Seattle went on strike seeking wage increases. They appealed to the Seattle Central Labor Council for support from other unions and found widespread enthusiasm. Within two weeks, more than 100 local unions joined in a call on February 3 for general strike to begin on the morning of February 6.[70] The 60,000 total strikers paralyzed the city's normal activities, like streetcar service, schools and ordinary commerce while their General Strike Committee maintained order and provided essential services, like trash collection and milk deliveries.[71] The national press called the general strike "Marxian" and "a revolutionary movement aimed at existing government".[72] "It is only a middling step", said the Chicago Tribune, "from Petrograd to Seattle".[72] Though the leadership of the American Federation of Labor (AFL) opposed a strike in the steel industry, 98% of their union members voted to strike beginning on September 22, 1919. It shut down half the steel industry, including almost all mills in Pueblo, Colorado; Chicago, Illinois; Wheeling, West Virginia; Johnstown, Pennsylvania; Cleveland, Ohio; Lackawanna, New York; and Youngstown, Ohio.[73] After strikebreakers and police clashed with unionists in Gary, Indiana, the United States Army took over the city on October 6 and martial law was declared. National guardsmen, leaving Gary after federal troops had taken over, turned their anger on strikers in nearby Indiana Harbor, Indiana.[74]

Internal strife caused a schism in the American left after Vladimir Lenin's successful revolution in Russia. Lenin invited the Socialist Party to join the Third International. The debate over whether to align with Lenin caused a major rift in the party. A referendum to join Lenin's Comintern passed with 90% approval, but the moderates who were in charge of the party expelled the extreme leftists before this could take place. The expelled members formed the Communist Labor Party and the Communist Party of America. The Socialist Party ended up, with only moderates left, at one third of its original size.[75]John Reed, Benjamin Gitlow and other socialists were among those who formed the Communist Labor Party while socialist foreign sections led by Charles Ruthenberg formed the Communist Party. These two groups would be combined as the Communist Party of the United States of America (CPUSA).[76] The Communists organized the Trade Union Unity League to compete with the AFL. By August 1919, only months after its founding, the Communist Party USA claimed 50,000 to 60,000 members.[77] Members also included anarchists and other radical leftists. In contrast, the more moderate Socialist Party of America had 40,000 members. The sections of the Communist Party's International Workers Order meanwhile organized for communism along linguistic and ethnic lines, providing mutual aid and tailored cultural activities to an IWO membership that peaked at 200,000 at its height.[78] (In 1928, following divisions inside the Soviet Union, Jay Lovestone, who had replaced Ruthenberg as general secretary of the CPUSA following his death, joined with William Z. Foster to expel Foster's former allies, James P. Cannon and Max Shachtman, who were followers of Leon Trotsky. Following another Soviet factional dispute, Lovestone and Gitlow were expelled and Earl Browder became party leader.[79])

On January 7, 1920 at the first session of the New York State Assembly, Assembly Speaker Thaddeus C. Sweet attacked the Assembly's five Socialist members, declaring they had been "elected on a platform that is absolutely inimical to the best interests of the state of New York and the United States". The Socialist Party, Sweet said, was "not truly a political party", but was rather "a membership organization admitting within its ranks aliens, enemy aliens, and minors". It had supported the revolutionaries in Germany, Austria and Hungary, he continued; and consorted with international Socialist parties close to the Communist International.[81] The Assembly suspended the five by a vote of 140 to 6, with just one Democrat supporting the Socialists. A trial in the Assembly, lasting from January 20 to March 11, resulted in a recommendation that the five be expelled and the Assembly voted overwhelmingly for expulsion on April 1, 1920.

Later in 1920, Anarchists bombed Wall Street and sent a number of mail-bombs to prominent businessmen and government leaders. The public lumped together the entire far left as terrorists. A wave of fear swept the country, giving support for the Justice Department to deport thousands of non-citizens active in the far-left. Emma Goldman was the most famous. This was known as the first Red Scare or the "Palmer Raids".[82]

Attorney General A. Mitchell Palmer, a Wilsonian Democrat, had a bomb explode outside his house. He set out to stop the "Communist conspiracy" that he believed was operating inside the United States. He created inside the Justice Department a new division the General Intelligence Division, led by young J. Edgar Hoover. Hoover soon amassed a card-catalogue system with information on 60,000 "radically inclined" individuals and many leftist groups and publications.[83] Palmer and Hoover both published press releases and circulated anti-Communist propaganda. Then on January 2, 1920, the Palmer Raids began, with Hoover in charge. On that single day in 1920, Hoover's agents rounded up 6,000 people. Many were deported but the Labor Department ended the raids with a ruling that the incarcerations and deportations were illegal.[84]

"Socialism" gradually came to be an American conservative attack-word aimed at merely liberal policies and politicians.[85] Since the late 19th century, conservatives had used the term "socialism" (or "creeping socialism") as a means of dismissing spending on public welfare programs which could potentially enlarge the role of the federal government, or lead to higher tax rates. This use of the word had little to do with government ownership of any means of production, or the various socialist parties, as when William Allen White attacked presidential candidate William Jennings Bryan in 1896 by warning that "[t]he election will sustain Americanism or it will plant Socialism".[86][87] Barry Goldwater in 1960 called for Republican unity against John F. Kennedy and the "blueprint for socialism presented by the Democrats".[88]

When the 1920s began, "the IWW was destroyed, the Socialist party falling apart. The strikes were beaten down by force, and the economy was doing just well enough for just enough people to prevent mass rebellion".[89] Thus, the decline of the socialist movement during the early 20th century was the result of a number of constrictions and attacks from several directions. The socialists had lost a major ally in the IWW Wobblies and their free speech had been restricted, if not denied. Immigrants, a major base of the socialist movement, were discriminated against and looked down upon. Eugene V. Debsthe charismatic leader of the socialistswas in prison, along with hundreds of fellow dissenters. Wilson's National War Labor Board and a number of legislative acts had ameliorated the plight of the workers.[90] The socialists were regarded as being "unnecessary", the "lunatic fringe" and a group of untrustworthy radicals. The press, courts and other establishment structures exhibited prejudice against them. After crippling schisms within the party and a change in public opinion due to the Palmer Raids, a general negative perception of the far-left and attribution to it of terrorist incidents such as the Wall Street Bombing, the Socialist Party found itself unable to gather popular support. At one time, it boasted 33 city mayors, many seats in state legislatures and two members of the House of Representatives.[91] The Socialist Party reached its peak in 1912 when Debs won 6% of the popular vote.[92]

Historian Eric Foner described the fundamental problem of those years in a 1984 article for the History Workshop Journal:

Where was the Socialist party at McKee's Rocks, Lawrence or the great steel strike of 1919? The Industrial Workers of the World demonstrated that it was possible to organize the new immigrant proletariat, but despite sympathy for the IWW on the part of Debs and other left-wing socialists, the two organizations went their separate ways. Here, indeed, was the underlying tragedy of those years: the militancy expressed in the IWW was never channeled for political purposes while socialist politics ignored the immigrant workers.[93]

The ideological rigidity of the Third Period began to crack with two events: the election of Franklin D. Roosevelt as President of the United States in 1932 and Adolf Hitler's rise to power in Germany in 1933. Roosevelt's election and the passage of the National Industrial Recovery Act in 1933 sparked a tremendous upsurge in union organizing in 1933 and 1934. Many conservatives equated the New Deal with socialism or Communism as practiced in the Soviet Union and saw its policies as evidence that the government had been heavily influenced by Communist policy-makers in the Roosevelt administration.[94] Marxian economist Richard D. Wolff argues that socialist and communist parties, along with organized labor, played a collective role in pushing through New Deal legislation and conservative opponents of the New Deal coordinated an effort to single out and destroy them as a result.[95]

The Seventh Congress of the Comintern made the change in line official in 1935, when it declared the need for a popular front of all groups opposed to fascism. The CPUSA abandoned its opposition to the New Deal, provided many of the organizers for the Congress of Industrial Organizations and began supporting civil rights of African Americans. The party also sought unity with forces to its right. Earl Russell Browder offered to run as Norman Thomas' running mate on a joint Socialist PartyCommunist Party ticket in the 1936 presidential election, but Thomas rejected this overture. The gesture did not mean that much in practical terms since by 1936 the CPUSA was effectively supporting Roosevelt in much of his trade union work. While continuing to run its own candidates for office, the CPUSA pursued a policy of representing the Democratic Party as the lesser evil in elections. Party members also rallied to the defense of the Spanish Republic during this period after a Nationalist military uprising moved to overthrow it, resulting in the Spanish Civil War (19361939). The CPUSA, along with leftists throughout the world, raised funds for medical relief while many of its members made their way to Spain with the aid of the party to join the Lincoln Brigade, one of the International Brigades. Among its other achievements, the Lincoln Brigade was the first American military force to include blacks and whites integrated on an equal basis.

Intellectually, the Popular Front period saw the development of a strong communist influence in intellectual and artistic life. This was often through various organizations influenced or controlled by the party, oras they were pejoratively known"fronts". The CPUSA under Browder supported Stalin's show trials in the Soviet Union, called the Moscow Trials.[96] Therein between August 1936 and mid-1938, the Soviet government indicted, tried and shot virtually all of the remaining Old Bolsheviks.[96] Beyond the show trials lay a broader purge, the Great Purge, that killed millions.[96] Browder uncritically supported Stalin, likening Trotskyism to "cholera germs" and calling the purge "a signal service to the cause of progressive humanity".[97] He compared the show trial defendants to domestic traitors Benedict Arnold, Aaron Burr, disloyal War of 1812 Federalists and Confederate secessionists while likening persons who "smeared" Stalin's name to those who had slandered Abraham Lincoln and Franklin D. Roosevelt.[97]

For the first half of the 20th century, the Communist Party was a highly influential force in various struggles for democratic rights. It played a prominent role in the United States labor movement from the 1920s through the 1940s, having a major hand in mobilizing the unemployed during the worst of the Great Depression[98][99] and founding most of the country's first industrial unions (which would later use the McCarran Internal Security Act to expel their Communist members) while also becoming known for opposing racism and fighting for integration in workplaces and communities during the height of the Jim Crow period of racial segregation. Historian Ellen Schrecker concludes that decades of recent scholarship[100] offer "a more nuanced portrayal of the party as both a Stalinist sect tied to a vicious regime and the most dynamic organization within the American Left during the 1930s and '40s".[101] The Communist Party USA played a significant role in defending the rights of African Americans during its heyday in the 1930s and 1940s. Throughout its history, many of the party's leaders and political thinkers have been African Americans: James Ford, Charlene Mitchell, Angela Davis, and Jarvis Tyner, the current executive vice chair of the party, all ran as presidential or vice presidential candidates on the party ticket. Others like Benjamin J. Davis, William L. Patterson, Harry Haywood, James Jackson, Henry Winston, Claude Lightfoot, Alphaeus Hunton, Doxey Wilkerson, Claudia Jones and John Pittman also contributed in important ways to the party's approaches to major issues from human and civil rights, peace, women's equality, the national question, working class unity, socialist thought, cultural struggle and more. African American thinkers, artists and writers such as Claude McKay, Richard Wright, Ann Petry, W. E. B. Du Bois, Shirley Graham Du Bois, Lloyd Brown, Charles White, Elizabeth Catlett, Paul Robeson, Gwendolyn Brooks and many more were one-time members or supporters of the party and the Communists also had a close alliance with Harlem Congressman Adam Clayton Powell, Jr.[102] A rivalry emerged in 1931 between the NAACP and the CPUSA, when the CPUSA responded quickly and effectively to support the Scottsboro Boys, nine African American youth arrested in 1931 in Alabama for rape.[103] Du Bois and the NAACP felt that the case would not be beneficial to their cause, so they chose to let the CPUSA organize the defense efforts.[104]

In 1929, Reverend A. J. Muste attempted to organize radical unionists opposed to the passive policies of American Federation of Labor president William Green under the banner of an organization called the Conference for Progressive Labor Action (CPLA).[105] In 1933, Muste's CPLA took the step of establishing itself as the core of a new political organization called the American Workers Party (AWP).[106] This organization was informally referred to as "Musteite" by its contemporaries.[106] The AWP then merged with the trotskyist Communist League of America in 1934 to establish a group called the Workers Party of the United States. Through it all Muste continued to work as a labor activist, leading the victorious Toledo Auto-Lite strike of 1934.[106] Throughout 1935, the Workers Party was deeply divided over the "entryism" tactic called for by the "French Turn" and a bitter debate swept the organization. Ultimately, the majority faction of Jim Cannon, Max Shachtman and James Burnham won the day and the Workers Party determined to enter the Socialist Party of America, though a minority faction headed by Hugo Oehler refused to accept this result and split from the organization. The Trotskyists retained a common orientation with the radicalized SPUSA in their opposition to the European war, their preference for industrial unionism and the Congress of Industrial Organizations over the trade unionism of the AFL, a commitment to trade union activism, the defense of the Soviet Union as the first workers' state while at the same time maintaining an antipathy toward the Stalin government and in their general aims in the 1936 election.[107] The Communist Party of the USA (Opposition) was a right oppositionist movement of the 1930s. The organization emerged from a factional fight in the CPUSA in 1929 and unsuccessfully sought to reintegrate with that organization for several years[108]

Norman Thomas attracted nearly 188,000 votes in his 1936 Socialist Party run for President, but performed poorly in historic strongholds of the party. Moreover, the party's membership had begun to decline.[109] The organization was deeply factionalized, with the Militant faction split into right ("Altmanite"), center ("Clarity") and left ("Appeal") factions, in addition to the radical pacifists led by Thomas. A special convention was planned for the last week of March 1937 to set the party's future policy, initially intended as an unprecedented "secret" gathering.[110]

Constance Myers indicates that three factors led to the expulsion of the Trotskyists from the Socialist Party in 1937: the divergence between the official Socialists and the Trotskyist faction on the issues, the determination of Altman's wing of the Militants to oust the Trotskyists and Trotsky's own decision to move towards a break with the party.[111] Recognizing that the Clarity faction had chosen to stand with the Altmanites and the Thomas group, Trotsky recommended that the Appeal group focus on disagreements over Spain to provoke a split. At the same time, Thomas, freshly returned from Spain, had come to the conclusion that the Trotskyists had joined the Socialist Party not to make it stronger, but to capture the organization for their own purposes.[112] The 1,000 or so Trotskyists who entered the Socialist Party in 1936 exited in the summer of 1937 with their ranks swelled by another 1,000.[113] On December 31, 1937, representatives of this faction gathered in Chicago to establish a new political organizationthe Socialist Workers Party.

Monthly Review, established in 1949, is an independent socialist journal published monthly in New York City. As of 2013, the publication remains the longest continuously published socialist magazine in the United States. It was established by Christian socialist F. O. "Matty" Matthiessen and Marxist economist Paul Sweezy, who were former colleagues at Harvard University.[114] The world-famous physicist and resident in the United States Albert Einstein published a famous article in the first issue of Monthly Review (May 1949) arguing for socialism titled "Why Socialism?". It was subsequently published in May 1998 to commemorate the first issue of Monthly Review's fiftieth year.[115] Editors Huberman and Sweezy argued as early as 1952 that massive and expanding military spending was an integral part of the process of capitalist stabilization, driving corporate profits, bolstering levels of employment and absorbing surplus production. The illusion of an external military threat was required to sustain this system of priorities in government spending, they argued; consequently, the editors published material challenging the dominant Cold War paradigm of "Democracy versus Communism".[116] The JohnsonForest tendency, sometimes called the Johnsonites, refers to a radical left tendency in the United States associated with Marxist theorists C. L. R. James and Raya Dunayevskaya, who used the pseudonyms J. R. Johnson and Freddie Forest respectively. They were joined by Grace Lee Boggs, a Chinese American woman who was considered the third founder. After leaving the Trotskyist Socialist Workers Party, JohnsonForest founded their own organization for the first time, called Correspondence. In 1956, James would see the Hungarian Revolution of 1956 as confirmation of this. Those who endorsed the politics of James took the name Facing Reality, after the 1958 book by James co-written with Grace Lee Boggs and Pierre Chaulieu, a pseudonym for Cornelius Castoriadis, on the Hungarian working class revolt of 1956.

Anarchism continued to influence important American literary and intellectual personalities of the time, such as Paul Goodman, Dwight Macdonald, Allen Ginsberg, Leopold Kohr,[117][118] Julian Beck and John Cage.[119] Goodman was an American sociologist, poet, writer, anarchist and public intellectual. Goodman is now mainly remembered as the author of Growing Up Absurd (1960) and an activist on the pacifist left in the 1960s and an inspiration to that era's student movement. He is less remembered as a co-founder of Gestalt Therapy in the 1940s and 1950s. In the mid-1940s, together with C. Wright Mills, he contributed to Politics, the journal edited during the 1940s by Dwight Macdonald.[120] An American anarcho-pacifist current developed in this period as well as a related Christian anarchist one. Anarcho-pacifism is a tendency within the anarchist movement which rejects the use of violence in the struggle for social change.[121][122] The main early influences were the thought of Henry David Thoreau[122] and Leo Tolstoy while later the ideas of Mohandas Gandhi gained importance.[121][122] It developed "mostly in Holland, Britain, and the United States, before and during the Second World War".[123] Dorothy Day was an American journalist, social activist and devout Catholic convert who advocated the Catholic economic theory of distributism. She was also considered to be an anarchist[124][125][126] and did not hesitate to use the term.[127] In the 1930s, Day worked closely with fellow activist Peter Maurin to establish the Catholic Worker Movement, a nonviolent, pacifist movement that continues to combine direct aid for the poor and homeless with nonviolent direct action on their behalf. The cause for Day's canonization is open in the Catholic Church. Ammon Hennacy was an American pacifist, Christian anarchist, vegetarian, social activist, member of the Catholic Worker Movement and a Wobbly. He established the Joe Hill House of Hospitality in Salt Lake City, Utah and practiced tax resistance.

Reunification with the Social Democratic Federation (SDF) was long a goal of Norman Thomas and his associates remaining in the Socialist Party. As early as 1938, Thomas had acknowledged that a number of issues had been involved in the split which led to the formation of the rival SDF, including "organizational policy, the effort to make the party inclusive of all socialist elements not bound by communist discipline; a feeling of dissatisfaction with social democratic tactics which had failed in Germany" as well as "the socialist estimate of Russia; and the possibility of cooperation with communists on certain specific matters". Still, he held that "those of us who believe that an inclusive socialist party is desirable, and ought to be possible, hope that the growing friendliness of socialist groups will bring about not only joint action but ultimately a satisfactory reunion on the basis of sufficient agreement for harmonious support of a socialist program".[128] Following directions from the Soviet Union, the Communist Party USA (CPUSA) and its members were active in the Civil Rights Movement for African Americans.[129] Following Stalin's "theory of nationalism", the CPUSA once favored the creation of a separate "nation" for negroes to be located in the American Southeast.[130] In 1941, after Germany invaded the Soviet Union, Stalin ordered the CPUSA to abandon civil rights work and focus supporting American entry into World War II. Disillusioned, Bayard Rustin began working with members of the Socialist Party USA (SPUSA) of Norman Thomas, particularly A.Philip Randolph, the head of the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters. The Socialist Party and the SDF merged to form the Socialist PartySocial Democratic Federation (SPSDF) in 1957. A small group of holdouts refused to reunify, establishing a new organization called the Democratic Socialist Federation (DSF). When the Soviet Union led an invasion of Hungary in 1956, half of the members of communist parties around the world quit and in the United States half did and many joined the Socialist Party. Frank Zeidler was an American socialist politician and mayor of Milwaukee, Wisconsin, serving three terms from April 20, 1948 to April 18, 1960. He was the most recent socialist mayor of any major American city. Zeidler was Milwaukee's third socialist mayor after Emil Seidel (19101912) and Daniel Hoan (19161940), making Milwaukee the largest American city to elect three socialists to its highest office.

In 1958, the SPUSA welcomed former members of the Independent Socialist League (ISL), which before its 1956 dissolution had been led by Max Shachtman. Shachtman had developed a Marxist critique of Soviet communism as "bureaucratic collectivism", a new form of class society that was more oppressive than any form of capitalism. Shachtman's theory was similar to that of many dissidents and refugees from Communism, such as the theory of the "new class" proposed by Yugoslavian dissident Milovan Djilas. Shachtman's ISL had attracted youth like Irving Howe, Michael Harrington,[131] Tom Kahn and Rachelle Horowitz.[132][133][134] The Young People's Socialist League was dissolved, but the party formed a new youth group under the same name.[135]

The Second Red Scare is a period lasting roughly from 1950 to 1956 and characterized by heightened fears of Communist influence on American institutions and espionage by Soviet agents. During the McCarthy era, thousands of Americans were accused of being communists or Communist sympathizers and became the subject of aggressive investigations and questioning before government or private-industry panels, committees and agencies. The primary targets of such suspicions were government employees, those in the entertainment industry, educators and union activists. Suspicions were often given credence despite inconclusive or questionable evidence and the level of threat posed by a person's real or supposed leftist associations or beliefs was often greatly exaggerated. Many people suffered loss of employment and/or destruction of their careers; and some even suffered imprisonment. Most of these punishments came about through trial verdicts later overturned,[136] laws that would be declared unconstitutional,[137] dismissals for reasons later declared illegal[138] or actionable,[139] or extra-legal procedures that would come into general disrepute. The most famous examples of McCarthyism include the speeches, investigations and hearings of Senator McCarthy himself; the Hollywood blacklist, associated with hearings conducted by the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC); and the various anti-communist activities of the Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) under Director J. Edgar Hoover. It is difficult to estimate the number of victims of McCarthyism. The number imprisoned is in the hundreds and some ten or twelve thousand lost their jobs.[140] In many cases, simply being subpoenaed by HUAC or one of the other committees was sufficient cause to be fired.[141] Many of those who were imprisoned, lost their jobs or were questioned by committees did in fact have a past or present connection of some kind with the CPUSA. However, for the vast majority both the potential for them to do harm to the nation and the nature of their communist affiliation were tenuous.[142] The African American intellectual and activist W. E. B. Du Bois was affected by these policies and he became incensed in 1961 when the Supreme Court upheld the 1950 McCarran Act, a key piece of McCarthyism legislation which required communists to register with the government.[143] To demonstrate his outrage, he joined the CPUSA in October 1961 at the age of 93.[143] Around that time, he wrote: "I believe in communism. I mean by communism, a planned way of life in the production of wealth and work designed for building a state whose object is the highest welfare of its people and not merely the profit of a part".[144] In 1950, Du Bois had already run for Senator from New York on the socialist American Labor Party ticket and received about 200,000 votes, or 4% of the statewide total.[145]

Harry Hay was an English-born American labor advocate, teacher and early leader in the American LGBT rights movement. He is known for his roles in helping to found several gay organizations, including the Mattachine Society, the first sustained gay rights group in the United States which in its early days had a strong Marxist influence. The Encyclopedia of Homosexuality reports: "As Marxists the founders of the group believed that the injustice and oppression which they suffered stemmed from relationships deeply embedded in the structure of American society".[146] A longtime member of the CPUSA, Hay's Marxist history led to his resignation from the Mattachine leadership in 1953. Hay's involvement in the gay movement became more informal after that, although he did co-found the Los Angeles chapter of the Gay Liberation Front in 1969. As Hay became more involved in his Mattachine work, he correspondingly became more concerned that his homosexuality would negatively affect the CPUSA, which did not allow gays to be members. Hay himself approached party leaders and recommended his own expulsion. The party refused to expel Hay as a homosexual, instead expelling him as a "security risk" at the same time declaring him to be a "Lifelong Friend of the People".[147] Homosexuality was classified as a psychiatric disorder in the 1950s.[148] However, in the context of the highly politicised Cold War environment homosexuality became framed as a dangerous, contagious social disease that posed a potential threat to state security.[148] This era also witnessed the establishment of widely spread FBI surveillance intended to identify homosexual government employees.[149]

The term New Left was popularised in the United States in an open letter written in 1960 by sociologist C. Wright Mills (19161962), entitled Letter to the New Left.[150] Mills argued for a new leftist ideology, moving away from the traditional focus on labor issues (Old Left), towards issues such as opposing alienation, anomie and authoritarianism. Mills argued for a shift from traditional leftism toward the values of the counterculture and emphasized an international perspective on the movement.[151] According to David Burner, C Wright Mills claimed that the proletariat were no longer the revolutionary force as the new agent of revolutionary change were young intellectuals around the world.[152]

In the wake of the downfall of Senator McCarthy (who never served in the House, nor HUAC), the prestige of HUAC began a gradual decline beginning in the late 1950s. By 1959, the committee was being denounced by former President Harry S. Truman as the "most un-American thing in the country today".[153] The committee lost considerable prestige as the 1960s progressed, increasingly becoming the target of political satirists and the defiance of a new generation of political activists. HUAC subpoenaed Jerry Rubin and Abbie Hoffman of the Yippies in 1967 and again in the aftermath of the 1968 Democratic National Convention. The Yippies used the media attention to make a mockery of the proceedings. Rubin came to one session dressed as a United States Revolutionary War soldier and passed out copies of the United States Declaration of Independence to people in attendance. Rubin then "blew giant gum bubbles while his co-witnesses taunted the committee with Nazi salutes".[154]

The Progressive Labor Party (PLP) was formed in the fall of 1961 by members of the CPUSA who felt that the Soviet Union had betrayed communism and become revisionist amidst the Sino-Soviet Split. Progressive Labor Party founded the university campus-based May 2 Movement (M2M), which organized the first significant general march against the Vietnam War in New York City in 1964. However, once the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) came to the forefront of the American leftist activist political scene in 1965, PLP dissolved M2M and entered SDS, working vigorously to attract supporters and to form party clubs on campuses. On the other hand, the Trotskyist Socialist Workers Party (SWP) supported both the civil rights movement and the black nationalist movement which grew during the 1960s. It particularly praised the militancy of black nationalist leader Malcolm X, who in turn spoke at the SWP's public forums and gave an interview to the Young Socialist. Like all left wing groups, the SWP grew during the 1960s and experienced a particularly brisk growth in the first years of the 1970s. Much of this was due to its involvement in many of the campaigns and demonstrations against the war in Vietnam.

Kahn and Horowitz, along with Norman Hill, helped Bayard Rustin with the civil rights movement. Rustin had helped to spread pacificism and non-violence to leaders of the civil rights movement, like Martin Luther King Jr. Rustin's circle and A. Philip Randolph organized the 1963 March on Washington, where King delivered his "I Have a Dream" speech.[3][4][5][6] King began to speak of the need for fundamental changes in the political and economic life of the nation and more frequently expressed his opposition to the war and his desire to see a redistribution of resources to correct racial and economic injustice.[155] As such, he started his Poor People's Campaign in 1968 as an effort to gain economic justice for poor people in the United States. He guarded his language in public to avoid being linked to communism by his enemies, but in private he sometimes spoke of his support for democratic socialism. In a 1952 letter to Coretta Scott, he said: "I imagine you already know that I am much more socialistic in my economic theory than capitalistic".[156] In one speech, he stated that "something is wrong with capitalism" and claimed that "[t]here must be a better distribution of wealth, and maybe America must move toward a democratic socialism".[157] King had read Karl Marx while at Morehouse.[158]

Michael Harrington soon became the most visible socialist in the United States when his The Other America became a best seller, following a long and laudatory New Yorker review by Dwight Macdonald.[159] Harrington and other socialists were called to Washington, D.C. to assist the Kennedy administration and then the Johnson administration's War on Poverty and Great Society.[2] Shachtman, Harrington, Kahn and Rustin argued advocated a political strategy called "realignment" that prioritized strengthening labor unions and other progressive organizations that were already active in the Democratic Party. Contributing to the day-to-day struggles of the Civil Rights Movement and labor unions had gained socialists credibility and influence, and had helped to push politicians in the Democratic Party towards social liberal or social democratic positions, at least on civil rights and the War on Poverty.[160][161] Harrington, Kahn and Horowitz were officers and staff-persons of the League for Industrial Democracy (LID), which helped to start the New Left Students for a Democratic Society (SDS).[162] The three LID officers clashed with the less experienced activists of SDS, like Tom Hayden, when the latter's Port Huron Statement criticized socialist and liberal opposition to communism and criticized the labor movement while promoting students as agents of social change.[163][164] LID and SDS split in 1965, when SDS voted to remove from its constitution the "exclusion clause" that prohibited membership by communists:[165] The SDS exclusion clause had barred "advocates of or apologists for totalitarianism".[166] The clause's removal effectively invited "disciplined cadre" to attempt to "take over or paralyze" SDS as had occurred to mass organizations in the thirties.[167] Afterwards, MarxismLeninism, particularly the PLP, helped to write "the death sentence" for SDS,[168][167][169][170] which nonetheless had over 100 thousand members at its peak. Monopoly Capital: An Essay on the American Economic and Social Order is a book by Paul Sweezy and Paul A. Baran published in 1966 by Monthly Review Press. It made a major contribution to Marxian theory by shifting attention from the assumption of a competitive economy to the monopolistic economy associated with the giant corporations that dominate the modern accumulation process. Their work played a leading role in the intellectual development of the New Left in the 1960s and 1970s. As a review in the American Economic Review stated, it represented "the first serious attempt to extend Marx's model of competitive capitalism to the new conditions of monopoly capitalism".[171] It has recently attracted renewed attention following the Great Recession.[172][173][174]

In the 1960s, the hippie movement influenced a renewed interest in anarchism, and some anarchist and other left-wing groups developed out of the New Left[176][177][178] and anarchists actively participated in the late sixties students and workers revolts.[179] Anarchists began using direct action, organizing through affinity groups during anti-nuclear campaigns in the 1970s. The New Left in the United States also included anarchist, countercultural and hippie-related radical groups such as the Yippies who were led by Abbie Hoffman, the Diggers[180] and Black Mask/Up Against the Wall Motherfuckers. By late 1966, the Diggers opened free stores which simply gave away their stock, provided free food, distributed free drugs, gave away money, organized free music concerts and performed works of political art.[181] The Diggers took their name from the original English Diggers led by Gerrard Winstanley[182] and sought to create a mini-society free of money and capitalism.[183] On the other hand, the Yippies employed theatrical gestures, such as advancing a pig ("Pigasus the Immortal") as a candidate for President in 1968, to mock the social status quo.[184] They have been described as a highly theatrical, anti-authoritarian and anarchist[185] youth movement of "symbolic politics".[186] Since they were well known for street theater and politically themed pranks, many of the "old school" political left either ignored or denounced them. According to ABC News: "The group was known for street theater pranks and was once referred to as the 'Groucho Marxists'".[187] By the 1960s, Christian anarchist Dorothy Day earned the praise of counterculture leaders such as Abbie Hoffman, who characterized her as the first hippie,[188] a description of which Day approved.[188] Murray Bookchin[189] was an American anarchist and libertarian socialist author, orator and political theoretician.[189] A pioneer in the ecology movement[190] by publishing that and other innovative essays on post-scarcity and on ecological technologies such as solar and wind energy and on decentralization and miniaturization. Lecturing throughout the United States, he helped popularize the concept of ecology to the counterculture. The Black Panther Party was a black revolutionary socialist organization active in the United States from 1966 until 1982. The Black Panther Party achieved national and international notoriety through its involvement in the Black Power movement and American politics of the 1960s and 1970s.[191] Gaining national prominence, the Black Panther Party became an icon of the counterculture of the 1960s.[192] Ultimately, the Panthers condemned black nationalism as "black racism" and became more focused on socialism without racial exclusivity.[193] They instituted a variety of community social programs designed to alleviate poverty, improve health among inner city black communities and soften the Party's public image.[194]

COINTELPRO was a series of covert and at times illegal[195] projects conducted by the United States Federal Bureau of Investigation (FBI) aimed at surveying, infiltrating, discrediting and disrupting domestic political organizations[196] FBI records show that 85% of COINTELPRO resources targeted groups and individuals that the FBI deemed "subversive",[197] including communist and socialist organizations; organizations and individuals associated with the Civil Rights Movement, including Martin Luther King, Jr.; the American Indian Movement; and broad range of organizations labeled "New Left", including Students for a Democratic Society and the Weathermen; almost all groups protesting the Vietnam War as well as individual student demonstrators with no group affiliation; organizations and individuals associated with the women's rights movement; nationalist groups such as those seeking independence for Puerto Rico, United Ireland, and additional notable Americans even Albert Einstein, who was a socialist and a member of several civil rights groups, came under FBI surveillance during the years just before COINTELPRO's official inauguration.[198]

In 1972, the Socialist Party voted to rename itself as Social Democrats,USA (SDUSA) by a vote of 73 to34 at its December Convention. Its National Chairmen were Bayard Rustin, a peace and civil rights leader; and CharlesS. Zimmerman, an officer of the International Ladies GarmentWorkers Union (ILGWU).[199][200] In 1973, Michael Harrington resigned from SDUSA and founded the Democratic Socialist Organizing Committee (DSOC), which attracted many of his followers from the former Socialist Party.[201] That same year, David McReynolds and others from the pacifist and immediate-withdrawal wing of the former Socialist Party formed the Socialist Party USA (SPUSA).[202] Bayard Rustin was the national chairperson of SDUSA during the 1970s. SDUSA sponsored a biannual conference[203] that featured discussions, for which SDUSA invited outside academic, political and labor union leaders. These meetings also functioned as reunions for political activists and intellectuals, some of whom worked together for decades.[204]

The Weather Underground Organization, commonly known as the Weather Underground, was an American radical left organization founded on the Ann Arbor campus of the University of Michigan. Weatherman organized in 1969 as a faction of Students for a Democratic Society (SDS)[205] composed for the most part of the national office leadership of SDS and their supporters. With revolutionary positions characterized by Black Power and opposition to the Vietnam War,[205] the group conducted a campaign of bombings through the mid-1970s and took part in actions such as the jailbreak of Timothy Leary. The "Days of Rage", their first public demonstration on October 8, 1969, was a riot in Chicago timed to coincide with the trial of the Chicago Seven.[206] The United Federated Forces of the Symbionese Liberation Army was an American self-styled left-wing revolutionary group active between 1973 and 1975 that considered itself a vanguard army. The Black Liberation Army (BLA) was an underground, black nationalist militant organization that operated in the United States from 1970 to 1981. The Communist Workers' Party was a Maoist group in the United States which had its origin in 1973 as the Asian Study Group (renamed the Workers' Viewpoint Organization in 1976) established by Jerry Tung, a former member of the PLP[207] who had grown disenchanted with the group and disagreed with changes taking place in the party line. The party is mainly remembered as one of the victims of the Greensboro Massacre of 1979 in which five protest marchers were shot and killed by members of the Ku Klux Klan and the American Nazi Party at a rally organized by the Communist Worker's Party intended to demonstrate radical, even violent, opposition to the Klan. The "Death to the Klan March" and protest was the culmination of attempts by the Communist Workers' Party to organize mostly black industrial workers in the area. The Communist Party (MarxistLeninist)'s predecessor organization, the October League (MarxistLeninist), was founded in 1971 by several local groups, many of which had grown out of the radical student organization Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) when SDS split apart in 1969. Michael Klonsky, who had been a national leader in SDS in the late 1960s, was the main leader of the Communist Party (MarxistLeninist)[208] which was also joined by the black communist theorist Harry Haywood. The Revolutionary Communist Party, USA, known originally as the Revolutionary Union, is a Maoist communist party formed in 1975 in the United States.

From19791989, SDUSA members like Tom Kahn organized the AFLCIO's fundraising of 300 thousand dollars, which bought printing presses and other supplies requested by Solidarity, the independent labor-union of Poland.[209][210][211] SDUSA members helped form a bipartisan coalition of the Democratic and Republican parties to support the founding of the National Endowment for Democracy (NED), whose first President was Carl Gershman. The NED publicly allocated US$4 million of public aid to Solidarity through 1989.[212][213]

Because of their service in government, Gershman and other SDUSA members were called State Department socialists by Massing (1987) harvtxt error: no target: CITEREFMassing1987 (help), who wrote that the foreign policy of the Reagan administration was being run by Trotskyists, a claim that was called a myth by Lipset (1988, p.34) harvtxt error: no target: CITEREFLipset1988 (help).[214] This so-called Trotskyist charge has been repeated and even widened by journalist Michael Lind in 2003 to assert a takeover of the foreign policy of the George W. Bush administration by former Trotskyists.[215] However, Lind's "amalgamation of the defense intellectuals with the traditions and theories of 'the largely Jewish-American Trotskyist movement' [in Lind's words]" was criticized in 2003 by UniversityofMichigan professor AlanM. Wald, who had written a history of the so-called New York intellectuals that discussed Trotskyism and neoconservatism.[216] The SDUSA and allegations that former Trotskyists subverted the foreign policy of GeorgeW.Bush have been mentioned by self-styled paleoconservatives (traditional conservative opponents of neoconservatism).[217][218]

The Democratic Socialists of America (DSA) was formed in 1982 after a merger between the Democratic Socialist Organizing Committee (DSOC) and the New American Movement (NAM).[219][220] At the time of the merger of these two organizations, the DSA was said to consist of approximately 5,000 former members of the DSOC, along with 1,000 from the NAM.[221] Much like the DSOC before it, the DSA was very strongly associated in electoral politics with Michael Harrington's position that "the left wing of realism is found today in the Democratic Party". In its early years, the DSA opposed Republican presidential candidates by giving critical support to DemocraticParty nominees like Walter Mondale in 1984.[222] In 1988, the DSA enthusiastically supported Jesse Jackson's second presidential campaign.[223] The DSA's position on American electoral politics states that "democratic socialists reject an eitheror approach to electoralcoalition building, focused solely on [either] a new party or on realignment within the Democratic Party".[224]

Anarchists became more visible in the 1980s as a result of publishing, protests and conventions. In 1980, the First International Symposium on Anarchism was held in Portland, Oregon.[225] In 1986, the Haymarket Remembered conference was held in Chicago[226] to observe the centennial of the infamous Haymarket Riot. This conference was followed by annual, continental conventions in Minneapolis (1987), Toronto (1988) and San Francisco (1989). In the 1980s, anarchism became linked with squats/social centers like C-Squat and ABC No Rio both in New York City. In the 1990s, a group of anarchists formed the Love and Rage Network which was one of several new groups and projects formed in the United States during the decade. American anarchists increasingly became noticeable at protests, especially through a tactic known as the black bloc. American anarchists became more prominent as a result of the anti-WTO protests in Seattle: In the 1990s, "there was an effort to create a North American anarchist federation around a newspaper called Love & Rage that at its peak involved hundreds of activists in different cities".[227] Common StruggleLibertarian Communist Federation or Lucha ComnFederacin Comunista Libertaria (formerly the North Eastern Federation of Anarchist Communists; the NEFAC, or the Fdration des Communistes Libertaires du Nord-Est)[228] is a platformist anarchist communist organization based in the northeast region of the United States.[229] The NEFAC was officially launched at a congress held in Boston, Massachusetts over the weekend of April 79, 2000,[230] following months of discussion between former Atlantic Anarchist Circle affiliates and ex Love & Rage members in the United States and ex members of the Demanarchie newspaper collective in Quebec City. Founded as a bi-lingual French and English-speaking federation with member and supporter groups in the northeast of the United States, southern Ontario and the Quebec province, the organization later split up in 2008. The Qubcoise membership reformed as the Union Communiste Libertaire (UCL)[231] and the American membership retained the name NEFAC before changing its name to Common Struggle in 2011 and then merging into the Black Rose Anarchist Federation.

The only American member organization of the worldwide Socialist International was the Democratic Socialists of America (DSA) until mid-2017, when the latter voted to disaffiliate from that organization for its perceived acceptance of neoliberal economic policies.[232] In 2008, the DSA supported Democratic presidential candidate Barack Obama in his race against Republican candidate John McCain. Following Obama's election, many on the right[233] began to allege that his administration's policies were socialistic, a claim rejected by the DSA and the Obama administration alike. The widespread use of the word socialism as a political epithet against the Obama government by its opponents caused National Director Frank Llewellyn to declare that "over the past 12 months, the Democratic Socialists of America has received more media attention than it has over the past 12 years".[234] Noam Chomsky, a member of the DSA[235] and the Industrial Workers of the World,[236] is described by The New York Times as "arguably the most important intellectual alive"[237] and has been on the list of the most cited authors in modern history.[238] Redneck Revolt, a socialist pro-guns organization, was founded in 2009.[239][240][241] Although the group does not identify itself as part of the political left,[242] nor as politically liberal,[239] it has been argued that the group's ideology is a form of libertarian socialism.[243] The Socialist Rifle Association, a similar socialist organization,[244] was founded in 2018.[245][246]

An April 2009 Rasmussen Reports poll conducted during the financial crisis of 20072010 (which many believe resulted due to lack of regulation in the financial markets) suggested that there had been a growth of support for socialism in the United States. The poll results stated that 53% of American adults thought capitalism was better than socialism and that "[a]dults under 30 are essentially evenly divided: 37% prefer capitalism, 33% socialism, and 30% are undecided".[247] In a 2011 Pew poll, young Americans between the ages of 1829 favored socialism to capitalism by 49% to 43%, but Americans overall had a negative view of socialism, with 60% opposing.[248] According to a June 2015 Gallup poll, 47% of American citizens would vote for a socialist candidate for President while 50% would not.[249] Willingness to vote for a socialist President was 59% among Democrats, 49% among independents and 26% among Republicans.[250] An October 2015 poll found that 49% of Democrats had a favorable view of socialism compared to 37% for capitalism.[251]

In November 2013, Socialist Alternative (SA) candidate Kshama Sawant was elected to Position 2 of the Seattle City Council. Sawant was the first socialist on the council in recent memory.[252][253] Philip Locker, a national organizer for SA, says it "was a watershed moment for the socialist movement across the country".[254]

Bernie Sanders, current Senator from Vermont and 2020 candidate for President, describes himself as a democratic socialist. Sanders served as the at-large representative for the state of Vermont before being elected to the Senate in 2006. In a 2013 interview with Politico, radio host Thom Hartmann, whose nationally syndicated radio show draws 2.75 million listeners a week, affirmed his position as a democratic socialist. Sanders has been credited with reviving the American socialist movement by bringing it into the mainstream public view for the 2016 presidential election.[259] With the election of Donald Trump, the DSA soared to 25,000 dues-paying members[260] and SA at least 30 percent.[261] Some DSA members had emerged in local races in states like Illinois and Georgia.[262] Subscribers to the socialist quarterly magazine Jacobin doubled in four months following the election to 30,000.[263]

According to a November 2017 YouGov poll, a majority of Americans aged 21 to 29 prefer socialism to capitalism and believe that the American economic system is working against them.[264] In the same month, 15 members of the DSA were elected to various local and state governmental positions around the country in the 2017 elections.[265] Tracing its lineage from the New Left to Norman Thomas and Eugene Debs, the DSA was the largest Socialist organization in the United States by 2017. As of September 2018, membership stood at 50,000, and the number of local chapters had increased from 40 to 181.[266]

In June 2018, Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, a member of the DSA, won the Democratic primary in New York's 14th congressional district, defeating the incumbent Democratic Caucus Chair Joe Crowley in what was described as the biggest upset victory of the 2018 midterm-election season.[267] She was elected to the House of Representatives in November 2018.

According to Gallup, socialism has gained popularity within the Democratic Party. As of 2018, 57% of Democratic-leaning respondents viewed socialism positively as opposed to 53% in 2016. The perception of capitalism among Democratic-leaning voters has also seen a decline since the 2016 presidential election from 56% to 47%. 16% of Republican-leaning voters and 37% of American adults overall had a positive view of socialism in the 2018 poll, compared with 71% and 56% holding a positive view of capitalism, respectively.[268] A 2019 Harris Poll found that socialism is more popular with women than men, with 55% of women between the ages of 18 and 54 preferring to live in a socialist society. A majority of men surveyed in the poll chose capitalism over socialism.[269] A 2019 YouGov poll showed that 70% of millennials would vote for a socialist presidential candidate, and more than 30% think highly of communism.[270]

On April 2, 2019, four members of the DSA won run-off elections in Chicago while two others retained or won their seat in the February election, bringing the total number to six socialists on the council. Socialists control twelve percent of Chicago's city council power which Jacobin managing editor Micah Uetricht states in The Guardian that it is further evidence of a "socialist surge" in the United States and "the largest socialist electoral victory in modern American history".[271]

Horowitz, Rachelle (2007). "Tom Kahn and the fight for democracy: A political portrait and personal recollection" (PDF). Democratiya (merged with Dissent in 2009). 11 (Winter): 204251. Archived from the original (PDF) on October 12, 2009.

Drucker, Peter (1994). Max Shachtman and his left: A socialist's odyssey through the "American Century". Humanities Press.

Sale described an "allout invasion of SDS by the Progressive Labor Party. PLersconcentrated chiefly in Boston, New York, and California, with some strength in Chicago and Michiganwere positively cyclotronic in their ability to split and splinter chapter organizations: if it wasn't their selfrighteous positiveness it was their caucuscontrolled rigidity, if not their deliberate disruptiveness it was their overt bids for control, if not their repetitious appeals for basebuilding it was their unrelenting Marxism". Kirkpatrick Sale, SDS, pp. 253.

Shevis, JamesM. (1981). "The AFL-CIO and Poland's Solidarity". World Affairs. World Affairs Institute. 144 (Summer, number 1): 3135. JSTOR20671880.

Kahn, Tom; Podhoretz, Norman (2008). Sponsored by the Committee for the Free World and the League for Industrial Democracy, with introduction by Midge Decter and moderation by Carl Gershman, and held at the Polish Institute for Arts and Sciences, New York City in March 1981. "How to support Solidarnosc: A debate" (PDF). Democratiya (merged with Dissent in 2009). 13 (Summer): 230261. Archived from the original (PDF) on November 17, 2011.

Puddington, Arch (2005). "Surviving the underground: How American unions helped solidarity win". American Educator. American Federation of Teachers (Summer). Retrieved June 4, 2011.

King, Bill (March 22, 2004). "Neoconservatives and Trotskyism". Enter Stage Right. 2004 (3). The question of 'Shachtmanism', pp. 12.

became devotees of a former Trotskyist named Max Shachtmana fact that today has taken on a life of its own. Tracing forward in lineage through me and a few other ex-YPSL's [members of the Young Peoples Socialist League] turned neoconservatives, this happenstance has fueled the accusation that neoconservatism itself, and through it the foreign policy of the Bush administration, are somehow rooted in 'Trotskyism.'

I am more inclined to laugh than to cry over this, but since the myth has traveled so far, let me briefly try once more, as I have done at greater length in the past, to set the record straight.[See "The Neoconservative Cabal," Commentary, September 2003] The alleged connective chain is broken at every link. The falsity of its more recent elements is readily ascertainable by anyone who cares for the truthnamely, that George Bush was never a neoconservative and that most neoconservatives were never YPSL's. The earlier connections are more obscure but no less false. Although Shachtman was one of the elder statesmen who occasionally made stirring speeches to us, no YPSL of my generation was a Shachtmanite. What is more, our mentors, Paul and Tom, had come under Shachtman's sway years after he himself had ceased to be a Trotskyite.

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