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Mismatches in conceptual definitions of basic thingseven animalshelp explain why people end up talking past each other so often, according to new research.

Is a dog more similar to a chicken or an eagle? Is a penguin noisy? Is a whale friendly?

Psychologists at the University of California, Berkeley say these absurd-sounding questions might help us better understand whats at the heart of some of societys most vexing arguments.

The research in the journal Open Mind shows that our concepts about and associations with even the most basic words vary widely. At the same time, people tend to significantly overestimate how many others hold the same conceptual beliefsthe mental groupings we create as shortcuts for understanding similar objects, words, or events.

Its a mismatch that researchers say gets at the heart of the most heated debates, from the courtroom to the dinner table.

The results offer an explanation for why people talk past each other, says Celeste Kidd, an assistant professor of psychology at UC Berkeley and the studys principal investigator.

Simple questions like, What do you mean? can go a long way in preventing a dispute from going off the rails, Kidd says. In other words, she says, Just hash it out.

Disagreements about word meanings arent new. From interpretations of the Constitution to definitions about what a fact is, semantic disputes have long been at the center of legal, philosophical, and linguistic thinking. Cognitive psychologists have likewise studied these differences in how people perceive and describe the world. The accumulation of our lived experiences affects how we conceptualize the world and helps explain why two people approach problems in different waysor even agree if something is a problem in the first place.

But measuring just how much those concepts vary is a long-standing mystery.

To help understand it a bit better, Kidds team recruited more than 2,700 participants for a two-phase project. Participants in the first phase were divided in half and asked to make similarity judgements about whether one animala finch, for examplewas more similar to one of two other animals, like a whale or a penguin. The other half were asked to make similarity judgments about US politicians, including George W. Bush, Donald Trump, Hillary Clinton, and Joe Biden. The researchers chose those two categories because people are more likely to view common animals similarly; theyd have more shared concepts. Politicians, on the other hand, might generate more variability, since people have distinct political beliefs.

But they found significant variability in how people conceptualized even basic animals.

Take penguins. The probability that two people selected at random will share the same concept about penguins is around 12%, Kidd says. Thats because people are disagreeing about whether penguins are heavy, presumably because they havent lifted a penguin.

If peoples concepts are totally aligned, then all of those similarity judgments should be the same, Kidd says. If theres variability in those judgments, that tells us that theres something compositionally thats different.

The researchers also asked participants to guess what percentage of people would agree with their individual responses. Participants tended to believeoften incorrectlythat roughly two-thirds of the population would agree with them. In some examples, participants believed they were in the majority, even when essentially nobody else agreed with them.

Its a finding befitting of a society of people convinced theyre right, when theyre actually wrong.

Overall, two people picked at random during the study timeframe of 2019-2021 were just as likely to have agreed as disagreed with their answers. And, perhaps unsurprisingly in a polarized society, political words were far less likely to have a single meaningthere was more disagreementthan animal words.

People are not aware of that misalignment, Kidd says. People generally overestimate the degree to which other people will share the same concept as them when theyre speaking.

An exception? People were generally on the same page when it came to the word eagle.

In a second phase of the project, participants listed 10 single-word adjectives to describe the animals and the politicians. Participants then rated the animals and politicians featuresIs a finch smart? was an example of a question they were asked.

Again, researchers found that people differed radically in how they defined basic concepts, like about animals. Most agreed that seals are not feathered, but are slippery. However, they disagreed about whether seals are graceful. And while most people were in agreement that Trump is not humble and is rich, there was significant disagreement about whether he is interesting.

This research is significant, Kidd says, because it further shows how most people we meet will not have the exact same concept of ostensibly clear-cut things, like animals. Their concepts might actually be radically different from each other. The research transcends semantic arguments, too. It could help track how public perceptions of major public policies evolve over time and whether theres more alignment in concepts or less.

When people are disagreeing, it may not always be about what they think it is, Kidd says. It could be stemming from something as simple as their concepts not being aligned.

Source: Jason Pohl for UC Berkeley

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